Benedict XVI 1927–

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Benedict XVI 1927–

(Pope Benedict XVI, Joseph Ratzinger, Joseph Alois Ratzinger, Joseph Cardinal Ratzinger)

PERSONAL:

Born Joseph Alois Ratzinger, April 16, 1927, in Marktl am Inn, Bavaria, Germany; son of Joseph (a police officer) and Maria Ratzinger. Education: Attended Catholic seminary, Freising, Germany, 1945; Ludwig-Maximilian University (Münich, Germany), degree, 1951; University of Freising, Ph.D., 1953. Religion: Roman Catholic. Hobbies and other interests: Playing piano.

ADDRESSES:

Office—Apostolic Palace, Vatican City, Italy.

CAREER:

University of Freising, Freising, Bavaria, Germany, professor of theology, 1957; University of Bonn, Bonn, Germany, professor of theology, 1959-69; University of Münster, Münster, Germany, professor of theology, 1963-66; University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany, professor of theology, 1966-69; University of Regensburg, Regensburg, Bavaria, Germany, professor of dogmatic theology and university vice president, beginning 1969. Ordained Roman Catholic priest, 1951; archbishop of Münich and Freising, 1977-81; created cardinal by Pope Paul VI, 1977; made cardinal bishop of title of episcopal see of Suburbicarian Church of Velletri-Segni, 1993; elected pope of Roman Catholic Church, 2005—. Consultor to archbishop of Cologne at Vatican Council II, 1962; Bavarian Bishops Conference, chairman, 1977-82; relator, Fifth General Assembly of Synod of Bishops, 1980; Sacred Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith, prefect, 1981-2005; Pontifical Biblical Commission and Pontifical International Theological Commission, president, beginning 1981; Sixth Synodal Assembly, president delegate, 1983; College of Cardinals, elected vice dean, 1998, elected dean and cardinal bishop of Suburbicarian Church of Ostia, La Candelaria, 2002. President, Commission for the Preparation of the Catechism; member, Secretariat of State (second section), Council for Christian Unity, Council for Culture, Commission for Latin America, Ecclesia Dei, and congregations of Oriental Churches, Divine Worship and Sacraments, Bishops, Evangelization of Peoples, and Catholic Education. Founder, Communio (journal), 1972. Military service: German Army Auxiliary Anti-Aircraft Service, 1943-44; Reicharbeitdienst, posted to Austria, 1944; German infantry, 1944 (deserted).

MEMBER:

Académie des Sciences Morales et Politiques.

AWARDS, HONORS:

Laurea honoris causa, Libera Università Maria Santissima Assunta, 1999; honorary member of Pontifical Academy of Sciences, 2000.

WRITINGS:

UNDER NAME JOSEPH RATZINGER

Volk und Haus Gottes in Augustins Lehre von der Kirche (dissertation; title means "The People and Mansion of the Lord as Presented in Augustin's Doctrine of the Church"), [Münich, Germany], 1954.

Die Geschichtstheologie des heiligen Bonaventura, [Münich, Germany], 1959, translated by Zachary Hayes as The Theology of History in St. Bonaventure, Franciscan Herald Press (Chicago, IL), 1971, published under name Joseph Cardinal Ratzinger, 1989.

Die christliche Brüderlichkeit, Kösel (Münich, Germany), 1960, translated by W.A. Glen-Doeple as The Open Circle: The Meaning of Christian Brotherhood, Sheed & Ward (New York, NY), 1966, 2nd edition, under name Joseph Cardinal Ratzinger, published as The Meaning of Christian Brotherhood, Ignatius Press (San Francisco, CA), 1993.

(Editor, with Heinrich Fries) Einsicht und Glaube, Herder (Freiburg im Breisgau, Germany), 1962.

Die erste Sitzungsperiode des Zweiten Vatikanischen Konzils. Ein Rückblick (title means "The First Session of the Second Vatican Council: A Retrospective"), J.P. Bachen (Cologne, Germany), 1963.

Sitzungsperiode des 2. Vatikanischen Konzils (title means "The Council in Progress: Retrospective of the Second Session of the Second Vatican Council"), J.P. Bachen (Cologne, Germany), 1963.

Ereignisse und Probleme der dritten Konzilsperiode (title means "Events and Issues of the Third Session of the Council"), J.P. Bachen (Cologne, Germany), 1965.

Die letzte Sitzungsperiode des Konzils (title means "The Council's Last Session"), J.P. Bachen (Cologne, Germany), 1966.

Theological Highlights of Vatican II, Paulist Press (New York, NY), 1966.

Das Problem der Dogmengeschichte in der Sicht der katholischen Theologie (title means "The Problem of Dogmatism from the Point of View of Catholic Theology"), [Cologne, Germany], 1966.

Einführung in das Christentum. Vorlesungen über das apostoliche Glaubensbekenntnis, Kösel (Münich, Germany), 1968, translated by J.R. Foster as Introduction to Christianity, Burns & Oates (London, England), 1969, Herder and Herder (New York, NY), 1970, 2nd edition, under name Joseph Cardinal Ratzinger, Ignatius Press (San Francisco, CA), 2004.

Das neue Volk Gottes. Entwürfe zur Ekklesiologie (title means "God's New People: Concepts for Ecclesiology") Patmos (Düsseldorf, Germany), 1969.

With Hans Maier) Demokratie in der Kirch: Möglichkeiten und Grenzen, 1970, 2nd edition, under name Joseph Cardinal Ratzinger, Lahn Verlag (Limburg, Germany), 2000.

Glaube und Zunkuft, Kösel (Münich, Germany), 1970.

Die Einheit der Nationen. Eine Vision der Kirchenväter (title means "The Unity of the Nations. A Vision of the Church Fathers"), Pustet (Salzburg, Austria), 1971.

Dogma und Verkündigung, Wewel (Münich, Germany), 1973, under name Joseph Cardinal Ratzinger, translated by Matthew J. O'Connell as Dogma and Preaching, Franciscan Herald Press (Chicago, IL), 1985.

(Editor) Aktualität der Scholastik?, Pustet (Regensburg, Germany), 1975.

(Editor and contributor) Prinzipien christlicher Moral, [Einsiedeln, Switzerland], 1975, under name Joseph Cardinal Ratzinger, translated by Graham Harrison as Principles of Christian Morality, Ignatius Press (San Francisco, CA), 1986.

Der Gott Jesu Christi. Betrachtungen über den Dreieinigen Gott, [Münich, Germany], 1976, translated by Robert J. Cunningham as The God of Jesus Christ: Meditations on God in the Trinity, Franciscan Herald Press (Chicago, IL), 1979.

Eschatologie, Tod und ewiges Leben, Pustet (Regensburg, Germany), 1977, under name Joseph Cardinal Ratzinger, translated by Michael Waldstein as Eschatology, Death, and Eternal Life, Catholic University of America Press (Washington, DC), 1998.

Also author of numerous pamphlets.

UNDER NAME JOSEPH CARDINAL RATZINGER

Die Tochter Zion. Betrachtungen über den Marienglaube der Kirche, [Einsiedeln, Switzerland], 1977, translated by John M. McDermott as Daughter Zion: Meditations on the Church's Marian Belief, Ignatius Press (San Francisco, CA), 1983.

(Editor) Dienst an der Einheit, Patmos-Verlag (Düsseldorf, Germany), 1978.

Gottes Angesicht suchen. Betrachtungen im Kirchenjahr, 1979, translated by David Smith and Robert Cunningham as Seeking God's Face: To Look on Christ, Franciscan Herald Press (Chicago, IL), 1982.

Zum Begriff des Sakramentes (title means "On the Concept of the Sacrament"), [Münich, Germany], 1979.

Umkehr zur Mitte. Meditationen eines Theologen (title means "Turning Back toward the Centre: A Theologian's Meditations"), [Leipzig, Germany], 1981.

Glaube, Erneuerung, Hoffnung. Theologisches Nachdenken über die heutige Situation der Kirche (title means "Faith, Renewal, Hope: Theological Contemplations on the Present Situation of the Church"), [Leipzig, Germany], 1981.

Das Fest des Glaubens. Versuche zur Theologie des Gottesdienstes (title means "Celebration of Thought: Attempts for a Theology of the Church Service"), 2 volumes, [Einsiedeln, Switzerland], 1981.

Theologische Prinzipienlehre. Bausteine zur Fundamentaltheologie, [Münich, Germany], 1982, translated by Mary Frances McCarthy as Principles of Catholic Theology: Building Stones for a Fundamental Theology, Ignatius Press (San Francisco, CA), 1987.

Schauen auf den Durchbohrten, Johannes Verlag (Eisiedeln, Switzerland), 1984, translated by Graham Harrison as Behold the Pierced One: An Approach to a Spiritual Christology, Ignatius Press (San Francisco, CA), 1986.

(With Vittorio Messori) The Ratzinger Report: An Exclusive Interview on the State of the Church, Ignatius Press (San Francisco, CA), 1985.

Im Anfang schuf Gott. Vier Predigten über Schöpfung und Fall, [Münich, Germany], 1986, translated by Boniface Ramsey as In the Beginning …: A Catholic Understanding of the Story of Creation and the Fall, Our Sunday Visitor (Huntington, IN), 1990.

Politik und Erlösung. Zum Verhältnis von Glaube, Rationalität und Irrationalem in der sogenannten Theologie der Befreiung (title means "Politics and Deliverance: On the Relations of Faith, Rationalism, and the Irrational in So-called Liberation Theology"), [Opladen, Germany], 1986.

Kirche, Ökumene und Politik. Neue Versuche zur Ekklesiologie, [Einsiedeln, Switzerland], 1987, translated as Church, Ecumenism, and Politics: New Essays in Ecclesiology, Crossroad (New York, NY), 1988.

Abbruch und Aufbruch. Die Antwort des Glaubens auf die Krise der Werte (title means "Deconstruction and Awakening: The Answer of Faith to the Crisis of Values"), [Münich, Germany], 1988.

Diener Eurer Freude. Meditationen über die priesterliche Spiritualität, [Freiburg im Breisgau, Germany], 1988, translated by Robert Nowell as Ministers of Your Joy: Scriptural Meditations on Priestly Spirituality, Redeemer Books (Ann Arbor, MI), 1989.

Auf Christus schauen. Ein übung in Glaube, Hoffnung, Liebe (title means "Looking at Christ: An Exercise in Faith, Hope, and Love"), [Vienna, Austria], 1989.

Mitarbeiter der Wahrheit. Gedanken für jeden Tag, edited by Irene Grassl, 2 volumes, [Münich, Germany], 1990, translated by Mary Frances McCarthy and Lothar Karuth as Co-workers of the Truth: Meditations for Every Day of the Year, Ignatius Press (San Francisco, CA), 1992.

Wendezeit für Europa? Diagnosen und Prognosen zur Lage von Kirche und Welt, [Einsiedeln, Switzerland], 1991, translated by Brian McNeil as A Turn-ing Point for Europe? The Church in the Modern World: Assessment and Forecast, Ignatius Press (San Francisco, CA), 1994.

Zur Gemeinschaft gerufen. Kirche heute verstehen (essays), [Vienna, Austria], 1991, translated by Adrian Walker as Called to Communion: Understanding the Church Today, Ignatius Press (San Francisco, CA), 1996.

Wahrheit, Werte, Macht. Prüfsteine der pluralistischen Gesellschaft (title means "Truth, Values, Power: The Cornerstones of a Pluralistic Society"), [Vienna, Austria], 1993.

(With Christoph Shoönborn) Einführung Catechismus der katolischen Kirche, [Münich, Germany], 1993, translated as Introduction to the Catechism of the Catholic Church, Ignatius Press (San Fransisco, CA), 1994.

Wesen und Auftrag der Theologie, [Freiburg im Breisgau, Germany], 1993, translated by Adrian Walker as The Nature and Mission of Theology: Essays to Orient Theology in Today's Debates, Ignatius Press (San Francisco, CA), 1995.

Ein neues Lied für den Herrn, [Freiburg im Breisgau, Germany], 1995, translated by Martha M. Matesich as A New Song for the Lord: Faith in Christ and Liturgy Today, Crossroad (New York, NY), 1996.

Salz der Erde. Christentum und katholische Kirche an der Jahrtausendwende. Ein Gespräch mit Peter Seewald, Wilhelm Heyne Verlag (Münich, Germany), 1996, translated by Adrian Walker as Salt of the Earth: Christianity and the Catholic Church at the End of the Millennium; A Talk with Peter Seewald, Ignatius Press (San Francisco, CA), 1997.

Vom Wiederauffinden der Mitte. Texte aus vier Jahrzehnten (title means "Recovering the Center: Four Decades of Texts"), [Freiburg im Breisgau, Germany], 1997.

Gospel, Catechesis, Catechism: Sidelights on the Catechism of the Catholic Church (translation of Evangelium, Katecheses, Katechismus), Ignatius Press (San Francisco, CA), 1997.

Viefalt der Religionen und der Ein Bund, 1998, translated by Graham Harrison as Many Religions, One Covenant: Israel, the Church, and the World, foreword by Scott Hahn, Ignatius Press (San Francisco, CA), 1999.

Aus meinem Leben: Erinnerungen (1927-1977), Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt (Stuttgart, Germany), 1998, translated by Erasmo Leiva-Merikakis as Milestones: Memoirs, 1927-1977, Ignatius Press (San Francisco, CA), 1998.

Der Geist der Liturgie. Eine Einführung, 4 volumes, [Freiburg im Breisgau, Germany], 2000, translated by John Saward as The Spirit of the Liturgy, Ignatius Press (San Francisco, CA), 2000.

(Author of introduction) Peter Wolf, editor, Lebensaufbrüche: Geisliche Bewegungen in Deutschland, Patris Verlag (Vallendar-Schönstatt), 2000.

Gott und die Welt. Glauben und Leben in unserer Welt. Ein Gespräch mit Peter Seewald, Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt (Münich, Germany), 2000, translated by Henry Taylor as God and the World: Believing and Living in Our Time; A Conversation with Peter Seewald, Ignatius Press (San Francisco, CA), 2002.

Gott Ist uns Nah. Eucharistie: Mitte des Lebens, edited by Stephan Otto von Horn and Vinzenz Pfnür, Augsburg, 2001, translated by Henry Taylor as God Is Near Us: The Eucharist, the Heart of Life, Ignatius Press (San Francisco, CA), 2003.

Glaube—Wahrheit—Toleranz. Das Christentum und die Weltreligionen, 2 volumes, [Freiburg im Breisgau, Germany], 2003, translated by Henry Taylor as Truth and Tolerance: Christian Belief and World Religions, Ignatius Press (San Francisco, CA), 2004.

Unterwegs zu Jesus Christus, Augsburg, 2003, translated as On the Way to Jesus Christ, Ignatius Press (San Francisco, CA), 2004.

Werte in Zeiten des Umbruchs, [Freiburg im Breisgau, Germany], 2005.

Pilgrim Fellowship of Faith: The Church as Communion, Ignatius Press (San Francisco, CA), 2005.

(With Marcello Pera) Without Roots: Europe, Relativism, Christianity, Islam, Basic Books (New York, NY), 2006.

UNDER NAME POPE BENEDICT XVI

(With Juan Pablo II) Catolicismo y Judaismo: El Dialogo entre Judios y Cristianos: 40 Anos de Nostra Aetate, Planeta (Barcelona, Spain), 2005.

Christian Brotherhood, Burns & Oates (New York, NY), 2005.

Fare la Verita Nella Carita: Da Joseph Ratzinger a Benedetto XVI, Ares (Milan, Italy), 2005.

Grundsatz-Reden aus Funf Jahrzehnten, Verlag F. Pustet (Regensburg, Germany), 2005.

In My Own Words, compiled and edited by Daniel T. Michaels, Liguori Publications (Liguori, MO), 2005.

Journey to Easter: Spiritual Reflections for the Lenten Season, translated by Dame Mary Groves, Crossroad Pub. Co. (New York, NY), 2005.

The Legacy of John Paul II: Images and Memories, photographs by Giancarlo Giuliani; translated by Michael J. Miller and Nicoletta V. MacKenzie, Ignatius Press (San Francisco, CA), 2005.

Let God's Light Shine Forth: The Spiritual Vision of Pope Benedict XVI, edited and introduced by Robert Moynihan, Doubleday Books (New York, NY), 2005.

Mary, the Church at the Source, translated by Adrian Walker, Ignatius Press (San Francisco, CA), 2005.

Pilgrim Fellowship of Faith: The Church as Communion, edited by Stephan Otto Horn and Vinzenz Pfnur; translated by Henry Taylor, Ignatius Press (San Francisco, CA), 2005.

La Rivoluzione di Dio, introduction by Camillo Ruini, San Paolo (Milan, Italy), 2005.

Way of the Cross, Pauline Books & Media (Boston, MA), 2005.

The Yes of Jesus Christ: Exercises in Faith, Hope, and Love, translated by Robert Nowell, Crossroad Pub. (New York, NY), 2005.

(With Jurgen Habermas) Dialektik der Sakularisierung: Uber Vernunft und Religion, Herder (Freiburg, Germany), 2005.

Für Alle Zeiten zur Erinnerung (Jos 4,7): Beitrage zu Einer Biblischen Gedachtniskultur, Katholisches Bibelwerk (Stuttgart, Germany), 2006.

Christianity and the Crisis of Cultures, introduction by Marcello Pera; translated by Brian McNeil, Ignatius Press (San Francisco, CA), 2006.

God Is Love, Ignatius Press (San Francisco, CA), 2006.

God's Revolution: World Youth Day and Other Cologne Talks, Ignatius Press (San Francisco, CA), 2006.

(With others) Handing on the Faith in an Age of Disbelief: Lectures Given at the Church of Notre-Dame de Fourviere in Lyons, France, and at Notre-Dame Cathedral in Paris, Ignatius Press (San Francisco, CA), 2006.

Que Brille la Luz de Dios: La Vision Espiritual del Papa Benedicto XVI, Vintage Espanol (New York, NY), 2006.

Values in a Time of Upheaval, translated by Brian McNeil, Crossroad Pub. (New York, NY), 2006.

Wo War Gott? Die Rede in Auschwitz, Herder (Freiburg, Germany), 2006.

Gott Ist die Liebe, Herder (Freiburg, Germany), 2006.

Présentation de la Lettre Encyclique Deus Caritas Est (Dieu Est Amour) Du Souverain Pontife Benoit XVI, Presses de l'UCAC (Yaoundé, Cameroon), 2006.

(With Jurgen Habermas) The Dialectics of Secularization: On Reason and Religion, edited with a foreword by Florian Schuller; translated by Brian McNeil, Ignatius Press (San Francisco, CA), 2006.

What It Means to Be a Christian, Ignatius Press (San Francisco, CA), 2006.

Images of Hope: Ventures into the Church's Year, Ignatius Press (San Francisco, CA), 2006.

On Conscience, Ignatius Press (San Francisco, CA), 2006.

Al Servicio de la Reconciliacion: Antologia de Textos del Magisterio del S.S.Benedictos XVI, Vida y Espiritualidad (Lima, Peru), 2007.

Coming Together in Joy: 99 Sayings, edited by Stephen Liesenfeld, New City Press (Hyde Park, NY), 2007.

Essence of Faith, Ignatius Press (San Francisco, CA), 2007.

The Essential Pope Benedict XVI: His Central Writings and Speeches, edited by John F. Thornton and Susan B. Varenne; introduction by D. Vincent Twomey, HarperSanFrancisco (New York, NY), 2007.

Europe Today and Tomorrow: Addressing the Fundamental Issues, Ignatius Press (San Francisco, CA), 2007.

The God of Jesus Christ, Ignatius Press (San Francisco, CA), 2007.

Jesus of Nazareth, translated from the German by Adrian J. Walker, Doubleday (New York, NY), 2007.

John Paul II: My Beloved Predecessor, edited by Elio Guerriero; foreword by John L. Allen, Jr., Pauline Books & Media (Boston, MA), 2007.

On Conscience: Two Essays, National Catholic Bioethics Center (Philadelphia, PA), 2007.

(With James V. Schall) The Regensburg Lecture, St. Augustine's Press (South Bend, ID), 2007.

God's Word: Scripture, Tradition, Office, Ignatius Press (San Francisco, CA), 2007.

Seek That Which Is Above, Ignatius Press (San Francisco, CA), 2007.

The Blessings of Christmas, Ignatius Press (San Francisco, CA), 2007.

New Outpouring of the Spirit, Ignatius Press (San Francisco, CA), 2007.

Church, Ecumenism, and Politics, Ignatius Press (San Francisco, CA), 2008.

Contributor to journals and other periodicals, including Ethos, Faith, Sceptre Bulletin, Nuovo Areopago, Ecclesia, Mérleg, Catholic Worlds Report, Acta philosopica, Communio, and Theologie und Glaube.

Author's works have been translated into numerous languages.

SIDELIGHTS:

Working closely with Pope John Paul II after being created cardinal in 1977, Joseph Cardinal Ratzinger reaffirmed the importance of traditional Roman Catholic teachings during an era characterized by rising moral relativism in the areas of bioethics, sexuality, and other matters. A highly respected theologian fluent in six languages—German, Spanish, French, Italian, English, and Latin—he served as cardinal prefect of the Vatican's Sacred Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith beginning in 1981. In this role Ratzinger articulately and sometimes forcefully promoted a traditional interpretation of Church doctrine, his sometimes inflexible manner earning him the epithet "Panzerkardinal" or "the Pope's Enforcer." Working closely with Pope John Paul II and aligning himself with the Polish-born pope's traditionalist approach regarding family, marriage, divorce, and the exclusion of women from the clergy, Ratzinger also spoke out against the death penalty and the corruptions wrought on society by excessive consumerism. In addition, he worked to stem the tide of "liberation theology"—a mix of Marxism and Catholicism—found throughout Latin America during the 1980s.

Elected the 265th pope of the Roman Catholic Church by the papal conclave on April 19, 2005, Ratzinger adopted the name Benedict XVI when he became bishop of Rome. His appointment was met with approval by conservatives who believed the new pope would continue to follow the conservative path set by his predecessor. As the Church faced its traditional foe in the rise of militant Islamic extremism, it also confronted worldwide poverty, particularly in South America and Africa, and a Western population for which religious faith had become increasingly irrelevant.

Benedict XVI was born Joseph Alois Ratzinger on April 16, 1927, in Marktl am Inn, Bavaria, where his father was an officer of the Bavarian state police. The youngest of three siblings, he knew from childhood that he desired to become a priest. He grew up under the shadow of the rise to power of Nazi leader Adolf Hitler, who became head of state in 1933. Like many children of his age, Ratzinger was at one point a member of the Hitler Youth; although his family did not support the Nazi regime, membership by German children of Ratzinger's age was compulsory after 1938. At age sixteen he was drafted into the German army for a year and assigned to the anti-aircraft artillery corps, eventually standing guard at a BMW plant that utilized Jewish slave labor. During the final months of the war he was again drafted, at first to build anti-tank defenses on the Austrian-Hungarian border, and later into the German infantry stationed in his then-hometown of Traunstein. Like many others, Ratzinger deserted only weeks before the German surrender to Allied troops; he was later briefly held in a prisoner-of-war camp in Ulm.

After the war ended, Ratzinger's life took a new direction. He completed a degree in theology at Münich's Ludwig-Maximilian University, and in June of 1951 he was ordained as a priest. After finishing his Ph.D. at the University of Freising, the future pope served as a professor of theology at the universities of Bonn, Münster, and Tübingen from 1959 to 1969. Ratzinger became an early proponent of the Church's liturgical movement, and he served as a theological advisor, or peritus, to the cardinal of Cologne, West Germany, during Vatican II beginning in 1962. During Vatican II he developed the relationship with Polish cardinal Karol Wojtyla that would change the course of his career when Wojtyla was elected pope as John Paul II.

Witnessing increasing campus unrest, Marxist-inspired radicalization, and a fragmenting of core Catholic tenets among his students in the wake of Vatican II, Professor Ratzinger became increasingly defensive of traditional Catholic positions. As Andrew Sullivan noted in Time, although he supported the liberalizing reforms initiated during Vatican II, the "reality of religious laxity" that resulted caused Ratzinger to "reassess the importance of the papacy as a means of asserting control over the church." In 1969 he left Tübingen and moved to the University of Regensburg, where he began writing on matters of theology and the Church.

Ratzinger's many books on Catholic matters range from basic texts such as the highly influential Introduction to Christianity—coauthored with Bishop Christoph Schönborn—and The Spirit of the Liturgy, designed for a lay readership, to works such as Called to Communion: Understanding the Church Today, which addresses specific theological issues. Describing The Spirit of the Liturgy as Ratzinger's effort "to recover something of the theological richness of the Church's tradition" in worshiping the Trinity, First Things reviewer Robert Louis Wilken added that the volume serves as "a timely and illuminating series of reflections." America contributor John F. Baldovin noted that the cardinal "weighs in on the side of those who see Christianity to be its own culture, as opposed to those who understand it to be always the child of particular cultural circumstance." In the book Ratzinger argues in support of preserving older traditions such as kneeling, periods of silence, and the use of more traditional music.

In Called to Communion Ratzinger outlines the belief that has underscored his orthodox approach since the 1960s. As Catholic Insight reviewer Leonard Kennedy explained, Ratzinger takes issue with the view of the Church as focusing on "the individual conscience as opposed to the institution" and thereby "reduc[ing] … Christianity to ethics." The Catholic Church is not such a body, the cardinal maintained. Instead, Catholics the world over "are all incorporated into Christ and all become one with him and thus with one another. We are a corporate personality."

In 1977, Ratzinger was appointed archbishop of Münich by Pope Paul VI, and was subsequently named a cardinal. He also became prefect of the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith, a highly influential position through which he served as chief interpreter of Church dogma. In this capacity Ratzinger resolutely supported conservative views on abortion, gay rights, birth control, and premarital sex. According to theologian Gianni Baget Bozzo, as quoted by Daniel Williams in the Washington Post, "Cardinal Ratzinger is a singular figure in the history of his office and perhaps the church. He takes the initiative on a wide range of subjects in a way that is usually reserved to the pope. That's not to say he acts against the pope. He is trusted. But he is a kind of vice pope."

In his high public profile as leader of the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith, Ratzinger frequently spoke out on various issues, and several lengthy interviews were published that allowed him to express his views. In the mid-1980s The Ratzinger Report: An Exclusive Interview on the State of the Church caused a stir among some Catholics. In the book, based on a 1982 interview with Italian journalist Vittorio Messori, Ratzinger expressed his concerns over the changes wrought by Vatican II, which he believed resulted in a loss of authentic Catholicism among a fragmented clergy. He also warned against heresy, noting the tendency for teachers and clergy to reinterpret Church teachings through an increasingly liberalized—and ultimately misguided—worldview. Appraising Ratzinger's pronouncements in The Ratzinger Report, Andrew Sullivan noted in the New Republic: "The explosion of Catholicism around the globe in the 20th century … actually increased the need for a more powerful center of doctrine. Joseph Ratzinger has felt few qualms … about providing it."

Talks with German journalist Peter Seewald resulted in the 1998 volume Salt of the Earth: The Church at the End of the Millennium and 2002's God and the World: Believing and Living in Our Time: A Conversation with Peter Seewald. Reviewing Salt of the Earth for Catholic Insight, Alphonse de Valk assessed the volume to be "full of wisdom" and noted that in the work, the future pope is revealed as "an intellectual whose deep Catholic faith is marked by joy, quiet confidence and serenity." In Christianity Today, Richard Neuhause also praised the work, noting that, regardless of one's personal beliefs, Salt of the Earth "is an invitation to engage the mind and soul of a Christian made wise by life and learning." In the course of his talks with Seewald, Ratzinger also revealed his vision for the Church as less a church of the masses and more a church composed of "small, vital circles of really convinced believers who live their faith." In God and the World Ratzinger "opens enlightening perspectives" on the Bible, evil, the Creation, the nature of God, and redemption, according to Theological Studies contributor Robert T. Sears, and ponders such issues "more as a knowledgeable and sensitive pastor than as a technical theologian." The then-cardinal also addresses the issue of Jews and the Catholic Church. "Jews are connected with God in a special way," he noted, adding: "We wait for the instant in which Israel will say yes to Christ, but we know that it has a special mission in history now."

As numerous predictions circulated in the wake of Pope Benedict XVI's election in April of 2005, most Church observers predicted that little would change in Rome under the new pontiff. One analyst was quoted as telling William C. Symonds for Business Week Online that Benedict XVI would likely "continue Pope John Paul II's pattern of centering decision-making in Rome."

As Pope, Benedict XVI has continued to share his thoughts with the world through his teachings and writings, producing numerous books. God's Revolution: World Youth Day and Other Cologne Talks, which was published in 2006, offers readers a clear understanding of Benedict XVI's vision for the Catholic world. The book collects a series of speeches that the Pope presented in Germany during the summer of 2005, each intended to clarify his position on doctrinal matters. The Pope used the occasion of his speeches to spread the word that he believes in a church that revolves around the teachings of Christ, and that glories in the spirit of love and acceptance, opening its arms to pilgrims from all walks of life. These thoughts were in particular geared toward audiences that were comprised not just of Catholics, but people of all religions. He also revealed his own frustration with the tendency toward bureaucracy that seems to weigh down any group or organization, and that vying for power is a waste of time and pointless in the face of God's love. He continued his welcoming stance by encouraging unity among all people while insisting that this melding did not necessarily require those of other faiths to turn their backs to their own beliefs. In a contribution for National Review, Michael Potemra remarked: "This is the approach of an apostle who meets the world in the spirit of Christ—that is to say, with a challenge grounded in love and true human respect. God's Revolution is a small book, but the ideas it presents are large." John Taylor, writing for MBR Bookwatch, found the book to be "an informed and informative collection of inspired guidance."

In Jesus of Nazareth, a major work that the Pope published in 2007, Benedict XVI addresses the question of religion and of maintaining a relationship with Christ. The Pope stresses the need for what he calls "an intimate friendship with Jesus," although that relationship is based on many versions of Christ, including that which is gleaned by reading the Gospels—with each gospel providing a different impression—and the interpretations gained from sermons and from discussion. Jesus of Nazareth serves as a filter for readers, as the Pope dissects his own numerous impressions of Christ developed through a lifetime of study and prayer and offers an image that takes all of these disparate impressions into account. Among the ideas that the Pope presents is the need for the Christian Church to be governed by love and not by a wielding of power. As with his earlier speeches delivered in Germany, he preaches tolerance and understanding and love, even between people who cannot come to an agreement on the basic tenets of their faith. In a review for Newsweek, writer George Weigel observed: "The extraordinary comes to us through the ordinary. The Gospels, read critically and with love, show us ‘reality's translucence to God.’ That is the claim of Jesus of Nazareth, posed winsomely by a pope writing as the teacher he always wanted to be." A reviewer for the Economist noted the Pope's stance that "because we live in an age when acts of religious accommodation are possible—and, for the sake of world peace, necessary—it is more important than ever to draw doctrinal lines in the sand." Ultimately, the one point of dissention between Christians and those of other religions—whether or not Christ was truly the Son of God—is the one point where the Pope stands firm. Unsurprising, given its basis as the very foundation of Christianity. Gerald O'Collins, in a review for America, concluded: "Jesus of Nazareth excellently achieves its central purpose by showing how the unique filial existence of Jesus was ‘the source from which his action and teaching and suffering sprang.’ It is also a profoundly moving testimony to what Jesus means to Pope Benedict XVI."

Ratzinger has actively promoted the concept of inalienable human rights. As quoted by John L. Allen, Jr., in the National Catholic Reporter, the then-cardinal explained: "I defend absolutely the existence of rights that cannot be decided by a majority of votes. We Germans know the importance of this. We wanted to create a pure race, a pure humanity, ignoring precisely the existence of these rights."

BIOGRAPHICAL AND CRITICAL SOURCES:

BOOKS

Allen, John L., Jr., Cardinal Ratzinger: The Vatican's Enforcer of the Faith, Continuum (New York, NY), 2000.

Nichols, Aiden, Theology of Joseph Ratzinger, T. & T. Clark, 1994.

Ratzinger, Joseph Cardinal, Salt of the Earth: Christianity and the Catholic Church at the End of the Millennium; A Talk with Peter Seewald, Ignatius Press (San Francisco, CA), 1997.

Ratzinger, Joseph Cardinal, Milestones: Memoirs, 1927-1977, Ignatius Press (San Francisco, CA), 1998.

Ratzinger, Joseph Cardinal, God and the World: Believing and Living in Our Time; A Conversation with Peter Seewald, Ignatius Press (San Francisco, CA), 2002.

Wagner, Karl, and Hermann Albert, editors, Kardinal Ratzinger: d. Erzbischof von München und Freising in Wort und Bild (contains bibliography), Pfeiffer (Munich, Germany), 1977.

PERIODICALS

America, November 30, 1985, Peter Steinfels, review of The Ratzinger Report: An Exclusive Interview on the State of the Church, p. 288; December 17, 1988, Joseph A. Komonchak, review of Church, Ecumenism, and Politics: New Essays in Ecclesiology, p. 522; October 22, 1994, Avery Dulles, review of Introduction to the Catechism of the Catholic Church, p. 21; May 7, 2001, John F. Baldovin, review of The Spirit of the Liturgy, p. 29; June 4, 2007, Gerald O'Collins, "He Who Is," p. 21.

Booklist, October 1, 1998, Ray Olson, review of Milestones: Memoirs, 1927-1977, p. 287.

Catholic Insight, June, 1998, Alphonse de Valk, review of Salt of the Earth: The Church at the End of the Millennium, p. 31; December, 1998, Leonard Kennedy, review of Called to Communion: Understanding the Church Today, pp. 30-31; September, 2004, Pope Benedict XVI, "Worthiness to Receive Holy Communion: General Principles," statement, p. 23.

Christianity Today, May 18, 1998, Richard Neuhaus, review of Salt of the Earth, p. 56.

Commonweal, March 14, 1997, Michael O. Garvey, review of In the Beginning …: A Catholic Understanding of the Story of Creation and the Fall, p. 21.

Economist, June 30, 2007, "An Author and His Subject: Religion," p. 93.

First Things, February, 1998, Thomas D. Williams, review of Salt of the Earth, p. 52; March, 2001, Robert Louis Wilken, review of The Spirit of the Liturgy, p. 59; April, 2001, David B. Hart, review of Two Religions, One Covenant: Israel, the Church, and the World, p. 59.

Hebrew Catholic, Volume 64, Elias Friedman, review of The Ratzinger Report, pp. 22-23.

Journal of Church and State, autumn, 1987, Gerald A. Largo, review of The Ratzinger Report, pp. 565-566.

Journal of Religion, July, 1989, Erik Borgman, review of Principles of Catholic Theology: Building Stones for a Fundamental Theology, p. 432.

MBR Bookwatch, June, 2006, John Taylor, review of God's Revolution: World Youth Day and Other Cologne Talks.

National Catholic Reporter, May 25, 1984, Michael J. Farrell, "Vatican Head Builds Muscles with Books," p. 24; September 7, 1984, Peter Hebblethwaite, "Document Warns about Liberation Theology ‘Abuses,’" p. 1; January 27, 1989, Peter Hebblethwaite, "Ratzinger Billed as New TV Star," p. 4; May 17, 1991, William C. Graham, review of To Look on Christ: Exercises in Faith, Hope, and Love, p. 20; October 6, 2000, John L. Allen, Jr., "Ratzinger Speaks out in New Book, Debate," p. 16; November 17, 2000; October 4, 2002, John L. Allen, Jr., "Could the Architects Be Deconstructing? Vatican II: Forty Years Later," p. 26; May 24, 2002; July 16, 2004, Joe Feuerherd, "Interpreting Ratzinger," p. 8; April 8, 2005, John L. Allen, Jr., "The ‘Gang of Four’ behind the Papal Throne," p. 5.

National Review, April 10, 2006, Michael Potemra, "Seeking God's Face," p. 52.

New Republic, July 4, 1988, Andrew Sullivan, review of The Ratzinger Report, p. 29.

Newsweek, May 21, 2007, George Weigel, "A Jesus beyond Politics; Benedict Becomes the Teacher He Always Wanted to Be," p. 49.

New York Review of Books, April 26, 2001, Garry Wills, review of The Spirit of the Liturgy, p. 27.

Observer (London, England), March 27, 2005, Jamie Doward, "Next Pope Is Set to Be Another Conservative."

Publishers Weekly, November 15, 1985, review of The Ratzinger Report, p. 32.

Theological Studies, June, 1989, Jeffrey Gros, review of Church, Ecumenism, and Politics, p. 386; September, 1989, Bradford E. Hinze, review of Eschatology: Death and Eternal Life, p. 583; September, 2003, Robert T. Sears, review of God and the World: Believing and Living in Our Time, p. 671.

Time, December 6, 1993; April 18, 2005, Andrew Sullivan, "Joseph Cardinal Ratzinger: The Pope's Theological Enforcer," p. 58; May 2, 2005, Nancy Gibbs, "The New Shepherd: It's Hard to Follow a Superstar," p. 28.

Times (London, England), December 24, 2004.

U.S. News & World Report, May 2, 2005, Dan Gilgoff, "Watchdog or Attack Dog?," p. 36.

Washington Post, November 5, 2004, Daniel Williams, "Strict Prelate Becomes Voice of the Vatican," p. A22.