Old World deer

(Cervinae)

Class Mammalia

Order Artiodactyla

Family Cervidae

Subfamily Cervinae

Thumbnail description
Only proximal parts of metacarpal bones of the second and fourth fingers (Plesiometacarpalian deer) are retained; vomer is short and does not divide posterior nasal holes; only males have antlers

Size
Large- and medium-sized deer

Number of genera, species
4 genera; 14 species

Habitat
Tend to stay in forests, woodlands, forest-steppe, partly in forested mountains; can adapt to varieties of habitats from marshlands to alpine meadows

Conservation status
Extinct: 1 species; Critically Endangered: 1 species; Endangered: 3 species; Vulnerable 3 species; Data Deficient: 2 species

Distribution
Most of Old World, except Africa (only in northwest and introduced into South Africa); in North America, only one species (Cervus elaphus), which is a newcomer

Evolution and systematic

The most ancient deer forms, similar to the modern Axis deer, appeared in early Pleistocene, about two million years ago. A comparative study of extinct and existing forms revealed some trends in body construction and ecology, which helped distinguish between ancient and recent types of Cervinae. The most primitive of deer, they are distributed in India, China, and Indochina, and inhabit tropical forests, shrub lands, and grass thickets, often close to water basins. Species more advanced in evolution adapted to forests that interchanged with clearings so that their diet preferences are wider, and include leaves, tree and bush branches, forbs, and herbs. Some species such as Siberian maral (Cervus elaphus sibiricus) feed on grasses in high numbers, though they need a mixed diet that includes tree or bush leaves and twigs. None of the Cervinae became true grass and roughage eaters like sheep or cattle. A mixed diet facilitated the adaptation to a wide variety of habitats, including forest edges (with raids to neighboring grasslands), as did red deer, fallow deer, and barasingha. Teeth developed higher crowns and so are now adapted to partial feeding of herbal forages. Lower jaws grew longer to develop a significant gape between fangs and premolars. Incisors are still wide, with asymmetric outer edges, adapted to grazing softer vegetation and to browsing. Intestines in red deer and fallow deer are 15–17 times longer than body length, while in true grass and roughage eaters, the length of intestines exceeds body length by 25–30 times.

Deer that inhabited northern areas differed from southern ones by the type of their coat. They had a thick undercoat, and hair in winter become air-filled and wavy, serving as an impermeable insulate for the animals.

Pere David's deer (Elaphurus davidianus) and barasingha (Cervus duvaucelii), as inhabitants of marshlands, had long hooves. The species that occupied mountainous areas, such as white-lipped deer (Cervus albirostris) had shorter and higher hooves, more adapted to harder ground. As well, the heels of the feet were enlarged, adding to their resilience on hard surfaces. When they moved from a continent to archipelago island, deer usually diminished in size, such as the Axis deer of the Indonesian archipelago.

Most deer fawns develop white spots, probably for camouflage. Most primitive deer are often spotty in the adult state, though they manifest no color differences in winter or summer coats, or between sexes. Multicolored ornate coats and different colors in bulls and hinds distinguish the evolutionary advanced species. They also develop a bright, white rump patch (a mirror) around the tail. These color differences all relate to more complicated social behavior. Both mirror and white underparts of the tail enable the herd to more easily follow a leader when danger threatens.

Antlers have become more and more significant as weapons, with the development of one or two brow tines that are important in defending themselves in rival fights. Three-pronged deer with long tails (hog deer, Axis porcinus; spotted deer, Axis axis; barasingha, Cervus duvaucelii; and sambar, Cervus unicolor) are found in the tropics; four-pronged deer in the warm, temperate zone (sika deer, Cervus nippon; and fallow deer, Dama dama), five- and six-pronged deer in the cold and alpine zones (izubr in Siberia, Cervus elaphus xanthopygus, elk in northern America, C. e. canadensis; and white-lipped deer, Cervus albirostris).

Cervinae (in particular the genus Cervus), compared with Odocoileinae, have lower reproductive rates, though they better utilize feeding resources and are more resistant to helminth diseases. The high degree of polymorphism is good for selection. The ability of interspecies (and even intergenera) hybridism is an important evolutionary feature of Cervinae. They are well adapted for intensive husbandry.

Physical characteristics

Deer vary in size from small to very large, standing high at the shoulders from 25–59 in (63–150 cm). Body is elongated, while legs are short or medium in length. A large bald spot partly covers the nostrils. Ears vary in size from short to long. Mane is typical for some specialized forms; primitive forms have no mane. The tail varies from extremely short and hidden by hairs, to very long. Antlers are rounded, with no less than three tines, and the brow tine is always developed. Some species wear antlers palmate at the top. Incisors are wide, with high crowns, while middle incisors have an elongated outer edge. Some species lack upper fangs. Molars always have high crowns.

Distribution

They occur in Europe and Asia, excluding areas to the north of 60°N, to northwest Africa. In North America, they occur from 60°N to Mexico. They are farmed in New Zealand, Australia, and the South African Republic.

Habitat

Deer inhabit predominantly ecotone habitats such as forest edges, and tend to move to more open habitats like alpine meadows, steppes, and farmed fields, rather than deep into forests. Some species inhabit tall shrub and grass thickets or marshlands.

Behavior

Most species live in small to moderately sized groups. In places of abundant forage, aggregations of tens and hundreds of deer gather. Bulls in these aggregations behave reasonably well, though they immediately establish hierarchy, which causes young males to stay at the periphery. In many species, bulls gather and defend harems of several does during the rut, trying to keep them on their breeding patches, and defend territories against rivals. Deer that inhabited thick groves, jungles, tall grass thickets in river or lake banks behave more like the Capriolinae: they live a solitary life, often are nocturnal, and are strictly linked to their home ranges.

Feeding ecology and diet

The type of feeding in these deer is mixed—they consume both concentrated forage (leaves, soft forest herbs, and fruits) and meadow grasses. This feature facilitates the farming and park breeding of them as they find the food supply (hay) to be acceptable.

Reproductive biology

The reproductive rate of Cervinae is lower than in Odocoileinae. Does give birth to one fawn, and start mating at one and half years. Stags start mating at the age of five years, when they are in full physical maturity and are strong and heavy enough to dominate rivals. Most species are polygamous, with bulls gathering and defending a harem of several does.

Conservation status

For a long time, deer of these subgenera have been game animals, some since ancient times. As a result, many species have become threatened or scarce. Schomburgk's deer (Cervus schomburgki) may be Extinct. Pere David's deer (Elaphurus davidianus) is Critically Endangered; Calamian deer (Axis calamianensis), Bawean hog deer (Axis kuhlii), and Philippines spotted deer (Cervus alfredi) are Endangered. Many are considered

Vulnerable species, including barasingha (Cervus duvaucelii) and Eld's deer subspecies (C. eldi eldi from Manipur state in India and C. e. siamensis from Thailand, Vietnam, Kampuchea, Laos, and Hainan Island).

Significance to humans

Cervinae includes important game and farming deer due to venison (recently, it has become more highly esteemed due to its low-fat content) and skins (its raw material makes for the best suede). Many parts are valuable for Asian medicine (their prices have exploded since 1960), including velvet antlers, hard antlers, tail, bones, penis, heart, liver, sinews, placenta, and blood. The annual import of velvet antlers to Taiwan reaches 12 tons (11 tonnes) (including a minor percentage of reindeer velvet antlers); Korea also imports 12 tons (11 tonnes) annually and Thailand imports 1.1–3.3 tons (1–3 tonnes). The main antler manufacturer is China; its output is 44–55 tons (40–50 tonnes) per year (mostly from sika deer, and some from red deer). In Russia, which exports 13.2–15.4 tons (12–14 tonnes) per year, there are farms of red deer and sika deer. Antlers are also considered valuable trophies. Since medieval times, castles were adorned with deer heads with magnificent antlers.

Species accounts

List of Species

Hog deer

Axis porcinus

taxonomy

Axis porcinus (Zimmermann, 1780), Bengal, India.

other common names

French: Cerf-cochon; German: Schweinshirsch; Spanish: Ciervo porcino.

physical characteristics

One of the smallest deer, looks strong despite its small size and short legs. Shoulder height: 24–30 in (60–75 cm); body length: 41–46 in (105–115 cm); tail length: 8 in (20 cm); weight: 79–110 lb (36–50 kg). Coat color is yellowish brown, darkened at the belly. Fawns develop white spots, while in adults spots are concealed. Bucks wear antlers 12 in (30 cm) long with three tines.

distribution

Originated in Pakistan, Indochina, and northern India; was introduced to Australia, New Zealand, the United States (Florida), and to the islands of Madagascar and Mauritius.

habitat

In Assam, they inhabit thick grasslands, with grasses taller than 4.9 ft (1.5 m); in shrub lands of Burma, they inhabit mangroves; in Manipur, they inhabit floating islets in Langmak Lake. Usually they keep to dark, poorly observed habitats. They use also clearings with moist pastures in big flood valleys.

behavior

Called hog deer due to their special silhouette and behavior (they run away with the head bent downward) and to the peculiar manner in which they run through grass and shrub thickets, without jumping, like a wild hog; they also have a hog-like inclination to wallow in mud. They are crepuscular, live solitarily, so that only a doe and its fawn are paired. Stags are extremely aggressive in defending their home ranges, which they mark by scent gland secretion. In rut, pairs of stag and does are often together. In areas of abundant forage, 10–20 animals gather together. They can easily hide from hunters in grass thickets.

feeding ecology and diet

Feed on herbs, forbs, flowers, grasses, and fruits.

reproductive biology

Polygamous. Bulls shed antlers in spring. Mating occurs mostly in July–October, and calving in January–April, though rut is possible year-round. Span between two births is about eight to 10 months, gestation period is 180–213 days, one fawn per birth is usual. Does become estrous a month after parturition and, if not mated, come into heat repeatedly. Life expectancy is 30 years.

conservation status

Not listed by the IUCN, but the main threats are hunting and habitat loss.

significance to humans

Game species hunted for meat and antler trophies. Some species become the predominate animals of game parks: red deer and sika deer.

Chital

Axis axis

taxonomy

Axis axis (Erxleben, 1777), Bihar, India.

other common names

English: Spotted deer; French: Chital; German: Axishirsch; Spanish: Chital.

physical characteristics

A medium-sized animal. Shoulder height: 30–38 in (75–97 cm); body length: 43–55 in (110–140 cm); tail length: 8–12 in (20–30 cm); weight: 165–220 lb (75–100 kg). Stags are bigger than hinds. Regarded as the most beautiful of the Old World deer due to ornate coloration: brown with reddish or yellow tinge. Belly, inner parts of legs, and tail are white. Beautiful bright white spots decorate deer all yearlong. There are nearly no signs of sexual dimorphism in color, no mane. Antlers are lyre-like, widely spanned, of three points at each beam with a brow tine (found just above the base) and a forked main beam, inclined backside.

distribution

Originally inhabited thick forests of Hindustan and Sri Lanka, later was introduced by humans to many areas in Australia, New Zealand, the United States (Texas), South America, and Europe.

habitat

Usually live near water, in plains and hilly lands covered by monsoon deciduous forests, in thorny shrubs or bamboo forests, sometimes in dry pastures.

behavior

Live in herds, up to hundreds individuals. Herds comprise animals of any sex and age, but old stags live solitary life. In large grazing herds, dominant stags, easily distinguished by size, gorgeous antlers, black neck, bright contrast color of muzzle, occupy a central position; they are surrounded by does, yearlings, and fawns. Peripheral ring is made up of weak stags, young or antler-less or with velvet antlers. Stags are not aggressive, they do not mark and defend their ranges, and rate rivals by evaluating body size, dimensions of antlers, behavior, and thus never launch useless combats. Only equal rivals fight. Chital are extremely settled, they stay in their ranges, even during deadly droughts, which are repeated in India and Sri Lanka every seven to 10 years. Then they die by hundreds and thousands. Chital active at dawn and sunset, they use hot middle part of day for rest. Deer approach human settlements, use arable lands.

feeding ecology and diet

Chital feed mainly on herbs and leaves.

reproductive biology

Polygynous mating takes place year-round, though mainly during winter. In the same herd, there are animals of various reproductive status: stags with cleaned, hardened antlers ready to mate; does in heat; and animals not in rutting state. Gestation period is seven to eight months, a doe gives birth to one fawn, rarely two. Fawns as old as one and half months can eat herbs, but are usually nursed to an age of six months. Most hinds start reproduction at one and a half years. Stags, due to strong competition among males, participate in breeding from four to five

years when they reach full physical maturity. Life expectation in the wild is nine to 13 years; in parks, as old as 22 years.

conservation status

Not threatened.

significance to humans

Chital is a popular game deer; once released from human pursuit and predators, its numbers soon exploded to make it a pest for cultivated lands.

Fallow deer

Dama dama

taxonomy

Dama dama (Linnaeus, 1758), Sweden (introduced).

other common names

English: Persian fallow deer; French: Daim; German: Damhirsch; Spanish: Gamo.

physical characteristics

Shoulder height: 33–39 in (85–100 cm); body length: 51–63 in (130–160 cm); tail length: 6–7 in (16–19 cm); weight: males 176–186 lb (80–125 kg), females 132–187 lb (60–85 kg).

Coat color is variable; some are reddish, some dark brown, some nearly white. Most of animals develop whitish spots, bright in summer and poorly distinguished in winter. Spots often merge to white stripes, while in some animals a black line goes along the back to tail. Color variation might be caused by domestication; from the Roman Empire times, the deer were bred in game parks throughout Europe. Males sport large palmate antlers. At the age of one, they get spiky antlers; by age three or four, bucks grow three-pointed antlers and the third tine transforms into a wide palm with multiple small tines at the edge. Total length of antlers is up to 15 in (39 cm).

distribution

Primarily inhabited the Mediterranean, then were brought to Europe by Romans where they adapted to wilderness and became a preferred animal to breed in parks. Later introduced to many European countries, to New Zealand, and North and South America.

habitat

Prefer open plains and hilly grasslands for grazing; use shrub lands and mixed and deciduous forests for shelter, shade, calving.

behavior

Yearlong home range of bulls rarely exceeds 740 acres (300 ha); that of does with calves is about 250 acres (100 ha). In North America, female herds use range to 15 mi² (40 km²) in winter and spring, while in summer their home range decreases to 2–3 mi² (5–8 km²). Insignificant shifts of home range sizes relate to abundance or availability of forage. During rut, bulls are strictly territorial, marking off a small patch, defending it against intrusion of rivals, keeping a harem of does and their offspring, and following each doe in heat until mating. Sounds made by stags in rut resemble snoring or hoarse coughs, and thus are quite distinct from those made by red deer. Stags often fight to establish hierarchy. As soon as rut is over, bulls cease defending activity and form bachelor groups. Segregated does with fawns make own groups.

In wilderness, they are very vigilant; it is difficult to approach them due to their excellent vision, hearing, and olfaction. Fleeing deer rise a tail, displaying a bright white patch bordered by black hairs.

feeding ecology and diet

Feed on herbs, forbs, and less on leaves and fruits.

reproductive biology

Polygynous. Stags shed antlers in April–May, and regrow them in August. Rut occurs from mid September–November. Gestation period lasts seven and half months, does give birth to one fawn, rarely to twins. First 15–20 days a fawn hide, afterward follows doe in a herd. Fawn is nursed until it is six to nine months old, weaning precedes a new birth. In their second autumn, young doe reach sexual maturity, and by age two can participate in breeding. Males breed at age six to seven years, after reaching full physical maturity, though they are sexually mature at 14 months. Life expectation in captivity is up to 25 years, while usual lifespan in wild is 10–15 years.

conservation status

Not threatened now. At the same time, subspecies Dama dama mesopotamica is considered to be a very rare, Endangered deer.

significance to humans

A significant game species, its meat and antlers considered valuable trophies. The deer most adapted to breeding in game parks. Europe's annual game harvest is up to 30,000 fallow deer.

Pere David's deer

Elaphurus davidianus

taxonomy

Elaphurus davidianus Milne-Edwards, 1866, Chihli, China.

other common names

English: Milu; French: Cerf du Pere David; German: David-shirsche; Spanish: Ciervo del padre David.

physical characteristics

Rather large animal. Shoulder height: 47 in (120 cm); body length: 6–6.3 ft (180–190 cm); tail length: 20 in (50 cm); weight: males 500 lb (220 kg); females 300 lb (135 kg).

They look odd, like a combination of deer, camel, cow, and donkey: very long and slender head, small ears, long legs with long and narrow (cow-like) hooves adapted to soft, boggy ground, very long tail ended by a black tuft. Unlike all other deer, the brow's first tine of antlers is forked into backward points. Also unlike other deer, Pere David's deer can grow two pair of antlers during a year, shedding summer antlers in November and growing a new pair in January (to shed it in some weeks). Bulls have a mane under the neck. Coat in summer is reddish rust, and retains long wavy axial hairs yearlong. In winter, the colors change to gray with bright creamy underneath, and dorsal dark stripe.

distribution

One thousand years ago, they inhabited northeastern and east central China. In 1939, the last wild deer was shot near the Yellow Sea.

habitat

It is believed that original habitats were marshlands.

behavior

Observations in game parks show that the deer like water, readily stay in water for many hours, are good swimmers. Live in bull clans and doe herds. Bulls fight during rut, using antlers, boxing by forelegs, and kicking with hind legs.

feeding ecology and diet

Feed on herbs and probably on aquatic plants.

reproductive biology

Polygynous. Gestation period is nine months, does give birth to one, rarely, two fawns, that wean in 10–11 months. Sexual maturity appears at 14 months. Life expectancy is to 23 years.

conservation status

Critically Endangered. Pere David's deer conservation is a classic story of joint efforts of scientists, enthusiastic conservationists, and game managers. To prevent the extinction of the species, owners of European zoos gathered 18 animals, good reproducers, in the Woburn Abbey Park in 1914; there, a population of 90 Pere David's deer was maintained. In spite of foraging problems caused by World Wars I and II, by 1946 the population numbers were 300. Today, hundreds of the deer are in breeding centers throughout the world. In 1986, deer were brought to China to Park Nan Hai-tsu, the center of their distribution a century ago. Reintroduction to the wilderness in a forest reserve near the Yellow Sea is expected soon.

significance to humans

Cultivated as park animals.

Sambar

Cervus unicolor

taxonomy

Cervus unicolor Kerr, 1792, Sri Lanka.

other common names

French: Sambar; German: Indischer Pferdehirsch; Spanish: Sambar.

physical characteristics

The largest deer in Southeast Asia. Shoulder height: 35–59 in (90–150 cm); body length: 6–9 ft (170–270 cm); tail length: 9–14 in (22–35 cm); weight: 220–300 lb (100–350 kg). Its colors are primitive, monotonous over entire body; sexual dimorphism is well displayed in some species. Antlers are simple, three pointed, later complicated by dividing.

distribution

India, Indochina, and Malaysia.

habitat

Inhabitant of moist tropical forests, visit cut clearings to feed on herbs.

behavior

Polygynous. Live solitarily or in small family groups (does, yearlings, fawns). Stags keep strictly to their home ranges, which they mark by secretion of pre-antler glands on branches of trees and bushes. Both stags and does are aggressive; stags fight with antlers, does use teeth or start boxing matches with their rivals. They establish hierarchy only by fierce fights. In gatherings of 30–40 individuals, there is the dominating stag in the center, does around, subdominants, and young bachelors at periphery.

feeding ecology and diet

Feed on leaves, bark, fruits in woods, on grass in clearings, consuming a great variety of vegetation. Consume numbers of toxic plants, without adverse consequences due to special micro floras in intestines, big size of rumen, and many species of other plants consumed at the same time.

reproductive biology

Stags grow antlers in January–April, wear hardened antlers from May–November. Rut occurs mostly in November– December. Gestation lasts six months, coinciding with rut time. Antler shedding occurs in December. Calving peak is April–May, though calving can take place nearly all year long.

conservation status

Not threatened.

significance to humans

The most important game species in India and other countries. Sambar is bred in game parks of Australia (more than 5,000 deer) and elsewhere.

Barasingha

Cervus duvaucelii

taxonomy

Cervus duvaucelii Cuvier, 1823, northern India.

other common names

English: Swamp deer; French: Cerf de Duvaucel; German: Barasingha; Spanish: Ciervo de Duvaucel.

physical characteristics

Shoulder height: 47–49 in (119–124 cm); body length: 71 in (180 cm); tail length: 5–8 in (12–20 cm); weight: 375–610 lb (170–280 kg). Its summer coat is short and pale creamy yellow. In winter, its coat is woolly and brown. Stags are darker with red shading.

distribution

Three subspecies are distinguished: C. d. duvaucelii, which inhabits Nepal and northern India; C. d. branderi of central India; and C. d. ranjitsinghi of eastern India.

habitat

Inhabit marshy flood plains, and move in winter to neighboring open grasslands, where deer survive on rough grasses and shrubs. Today, they also occupy broadleaved forests, both dry and moist, with under story of grasses, as well as evergreen thickets and mangroves.

behavior

Live in small variable herds (four to 12 animals). The largest aggregations observed comprised 30 deer, though gathering only lasted a day. Breeding herds are mixed (bulls, does, young) and, at the peak of rut, are up to 50 animals. Bachelor groups were observed. Deer easily congregate or disperse, as there are no strong social bonds between animals. Only pairs of doe and a fawn younger than one year are linked.

feeding ecology and diet

Feed on grasses, less on aquatic plants in swamps.

reproductive biology

Polygynous. Rut is during December–January. Females come into heat once a year, gestation period lasts 240–250 days. The breeding hierarchy is established by fighting among males, dominating males mating with females in heat.

conservation status

C. d. branderi is Endangered, C. d. ranjitsinghi is Critically Endangered, and C. d. duvaucelii is Vulnerable. Decline in numbers is rapid due to poaching, drainage of wetlands, shooting to defend crops, and diseases contracted from livestock. The population range is fragmented in the limits of national parks in Nepal and India. However, in natural reserves, a steady revival and even increase in numbers occurs and numbers of C.d. duvaucelii currently expanded 3,500.

significance to humans

Game species. Low population numbers determine cultural significance today. Is preserved in parks.

Eld's deer

Cervus eldii

taxonomy

Cervus eldi McClelland, 1842, Assam, India.

other common names

English: Brow-antlered deer, thamin; French: Cerf D'Eld; German: Leierhirsch; Spanish: Ciervo de Elde.

physical characteristics

Medium sized. Shoulder height: 48–51 in (120–130 cm); body length: 59–67 in (150–170 cm); tail length: 9–10 in (22–25 cm); weight: 210–330 lb (95–150 kg). Color in dorsal part is reddish brown in winter, lighter in summer; hinds lighter colored than stags. Whitish spots at back are noticeable. In adult males, thick and long hair forms a mane on the neck. Unlike other deer, the brow tine of antler forms a continuous curve with the beam (sometimes longer than 3.2 ft [1 m]) and resembles a bow from the side. Often, beam flattens at the end and forked to six to 12 tines. Hooves are adapted to boggy grounds.

distribution

India (Manipur state), Myanmar, Laos, and Vietnam.

habitat

Inhabit marshy lowlands with thick reed and grass. On Lake Longtak, wild population stays on a floating raft, formed by marshy soil, turf, and dead vegetation and overgrowth by reeds. During dry season, when the raft sinks, deer find shelter at lakeshores. Also use hilly islets in the lake for feeding and calving.

behavior

Live in small groups of four to seven animals; gather in herds to 50 individuals. Adult stags live solitarily; join herd during rut. Wary, active at dusk, stay during heat of day resting at the edges of forests.

feeding ecology and diet

Sacharum latifoluum comprise main forage. They feed mostly on grass, while tree parts and fruits are subordinate food.

reproductive biology

Polygynous. Shed antlers in June. New antlers are fully developed in three to four months, and are cleaned of velvet in November. Does reach sexual maturity at one or two years, are in heat February–September; estrus repeats each 17 days and lasts two days. Rut occurs in February–May, stags fight fiercely. Gestation period is 242 days, usually it is one young per birth. Weaning occurs in seven months.

conservation status

C. e. eldii distributed in Manipur, India, in one national park is Critically Endangered, and C. e. siamensis distributed in Thailand and Kampuchea, total numbers estimated as 100–200 is Data Deficient. Population is threatened mainly by loss of habitat, and fawns are killed by poachers and wild dogs. Breeding in zoos followed by reintroduction to wilderness would be favorable for the species. C. e. thamin inhabiting Myanmar and Thailand are rather numerous, but listed as Lower Risk/Near Threatened. Poaching and loss of habitat due to farming and breeding of livestock cause its numbers to decrease.

significance to humans

Rare species. Many efforts by governments and social organizations are being made for its preservation.

Sika deer

Cervus nippon

taxonomy

Cervus nippon Temminck, 1838, Japan.

other common names

French: Sika; German: Sikahirsch; Spanish: Sika.

physical characteristics

Medium sized. Shoulder height: 25–48 in (65–120 cm); male body length 66–74 in (168–187 cm); female: 59–69 in (149–176 cm); tail length: 6–7 in (17–19 cm); male weight: 230–310 lb (104–139 kg); female: 132–205 lb (60–93 kg). Males sport antlers to five tines, the second brow tine lacking or represented by a small prominence. Antlers forked in upper part or develop three-tined bush. Coat color in winter is brown-olive or reddish brown. Adult deer develop whitish spots on dorsal part of body and shoulders. Rump patch in winter is rather small. Tail adorned by wide black stripe above and is white underside. Rump hair rises to enlarge the mirror surface. In summer, coat is reddish to whitish below, with distinctive white spots on dorsal part and in stripes on sides. Spots better developed in young than in adult animals.

distribution

East China, Taiwan, Korean Peninsula, southern part of the Russian Far East, and Japan; introduced to New Zealand, European part of Russia, and other countries.

habitat

Prefer deciduous forests at seashores and surrounding mountain slopes, but escape coniferous and mixed coniferous-deciduous forests, marshy flood plains. Snow cover deeper than 15.7–19.6 in (40–50 cm) is limiting, and areas with snow cover lasting no more than 140 days are preferable.

behavior

Live in small mixed herds, four to 20 individuals, but in spring and summer, females with fawns live in separate groups. During rut, a dominating male keeps some females on the home range. The dominating male banishes young males from a herd during rut, but they return back when rut is over. Sedentary; a summer home range of an individual is about 0.4–0.8 mi² (1–2 km²), and groups ranging 1.5–1.9 mi² (4–5 km²). Winter home range is more restricted, to 49–74 ac (20–30 ha). A male arranges six to seven rutting points: by trampling down vegetation, fraying trees with antlers, urinating into a pit, wallowing in mud. At rutting points, males roar.

Excellent runners, can jump to 19.6–26.2 ft (6–8 m) and cross a sea strait as wide as 6 mi (10 km). Animals are extremely vigilant.

feeding ecology and diet

Feed in winter on twigs of trees and shrubs, on bark, buds, leaves, and in some areas on acorns. In winter and autumn, herbs and fungi comprise a main part of the diet. Deer nip off very small pieces of each forage.

reproductive biology

Polygynous. Shed antlers in March–April, first adult, then young males; growth of antlers starts soon after. Rut starts in October. Gestation period is 233–241 days. The first fawns appear in April, calving lasts till the end of May; there is usually one young per birth, rarely two. Both males and females reach sexual maturity early, but take part in breeding later: males at three to four years, females at two and half years.

conservation status

Eleven subspecies of sika deer are listed by the IUCN: five as Critically Endangered, two as Endangered, and four as Data Deficient.

significance to humans

Important as game species. As trophies of sport, game meat, antlers, and skin are used. Velvet antlers are valued in Asian medicine. Velvet antler crop farming is significant in China, Thailand, and Korea. At the beginning of the 1980s, there were about 195,000 animals on Chinese farms, mostly Cervus nippon hortulorum. In Korea, mainly Cervus nippon taiouanus is farmed, to 80,000 by the end of the 1980s. Velvet antlers of a single male bring about $600 of pure profit. Also, meat, sinews, and tails from farms are used by local inhabitants.

Red deer

Cervus elaphus

taxonomy

Cervus elaphus Linnaeus, 1758, Sweden.

other common names

French: Cerf rouge; German: Edelhirsch; Spanish: Ciervo rojo.

physical characteristics

Large sized. European red deer (C. e. elaphus) have shoulder height: 47–59 in (120–150 cm); male body length: 69–91 in (175–230 cm); female: 63–83 in (160–210 cm); tail length: 5–7 in (12–19 cm); male weight: 350–530 lb (160–240 kg); female: 264–374 lb (120–170 kg). North American wapiti (C.e. canadensis) have shoulder height: 47–59 in (120–150 cm); male body length: 83–110 in (210–280 cm); female: 70–105 in (180–270 cm); tail length 5–7 in (12–19 cm); male weight: 880 lb (400 kg); female: 570 lb (260 kg). Antlers develop at least five tines, with the second brow tine developed in most subspecies. Year-ling males carry a set of long, single-point antlers, which are replaced in the subsequent year with a set of uneven, branched antlers with three or four points on each side. In their fourth year, bulls are fully matured and usually bear antlers with five or more points. Coat in adults is mostly monotonous or darkened at head, neck, lower part of body, and legs. Winter color is grayish brown; summer color is red. Rump patch is obvious, fringy.

distribution

Red deer in historical time inhabited temperate forests as well as plains in Europe, Asia, and North America. They were numerous in western Siberia, Kazakhstan, and the Urals. Extinguished by humans, deer survived in separated areas in mountain forests where there were more chances to survive in bushy thickets and high herbs in river valleys. Today, red deer is rapidly being restored to its distribution area, to occupy new grounds, even in very harsh climates (as in Yakutia).

habitat

An ecotone species whose habitat use is concentrated along relatively open areas that provide forage and densely forested areas that provide cover. About 95% of elk use of forage occurs within 650 ft (200 m) of a forage/cover edge. Patches of cover need to be at least 325 ft (100 m) and no more than 1,650 ft (500 m) wide to provide optimum elk habitat. Also inhabit shores of rivulets, open plains, hills, marshlands, and reed thickets in marshy river valleys, as well as mountain terraces and subalpine meadows. In middle Asia, they stay at altitudes to 7,500 ft (2,300 m) and use alpine meadows during many months. In vast monotonous coniferous (larch, less fir and spruce) forests of Siberia, they switch to more open fire-sites and cut clearings, where at the first year plenty of herbs grow and, in some years, overgrowth of broadleaf trees and regrowing of coniferous trees beneath occur. River valleys are especially important as they feed in willow shrubs and poplar groves.

In the most of their range, they meet snow problems. Animals move easily if depth of snow cover reaches 7.8–11.8 in (20–30 cm). Where it exceeds 19.6–23.6 in (50–60 cm), deer gather in limited areas with abundant forage (twigs, sprouts of trees, and shrubs) and move less. Snow depths of 27.5–29.5 in (70–75 cm) is crucial for does and calves, while strong stags survive in places with 39.3 in (100 cm) of snow.

behavior

Live by singles (males, female with fawn), family groups (female, fawn, and yearling), and gatherings. During rut, there are either harems or bachelor groups; stags arrange, mark, and defend against invaders. Antler size is a key factor determining a bull's status and breeding privileges. When bulls are relatively equal in size, antlers are used in a pushing match. However, to avoid injuries and even death, physical combat is usually avoided in favor of visual displays to determine dominance.

Adult females often became leaders of family or mixed groups, while the biggest deer governs group of males. Leaders determine direction of movement, start of migration, raid to saltlicks, rhythm of grazing. If a predator attacks, large mixed groups often disperse in all directions.

During year, size of home range is 8–12 mi² (20–30 km²). Animal uses trails, feeding and watering points, steep rock patches to escape from predators. In winter, especially in heavy snow, home range restricted. Observations show that a deer rests (and consequently feeds) five to eight times a day. It chooses rest areas of good observation (slope, forest edge).

In mountains, they make seasonal migrations: ascending in spring to upper forest border and then to alpine meadows. In autumn, animals move back to coniferous forests where snow cover is less deep.

Red deer are good walkers, trotters, and runners. Good swimmers, they can cross wide rivers and swim into an open sea for a significant distances.

Common prey for predators including humans, they are very vigilant. Animals look around 40 times per hour. They often defend themselves against predators by keeping to a rock prominence and using antlers or fore legs. Another way to escape is swimming across a wide and turbulent river or staying in water for a long time.

feeding ecology and diet

Feeding niche is wider than in other Cervidae. Main forage comprised of twigs, stems, and leaves of broadleaved trees and shrubs, needles and branches of larch and fir, herbs and sedges, forbs, horsetails, lichens, fruits, and fungi. Some preferable plants are willows, poplar, mountain ash, oak, cowberries, and blackberries.

In North America, they use western hemlock, fir, western red cedar, Oregon grape, Pacific ninebark, red elderberry, cowberries, willows, salal, ferns, sedges, bunchberry, salmonberry, twinflower, skunk cabbage, and wall lettuce.

In many areas, they visit saltlicks and use rivulets in summer and snow in winter for watering.

reproductive biology

Polygynous. In July and August, stags begin to clean velvet from antlers. Rut starts at the end of August and the beginning of September and lasts till the end of September, October, or November. Harem of one stag includes one to five, rarely to 18, does. Harem sizes relate to population density. Elsewhere, bulls gather to leks, up to 50 individuals; they roar and display aggressive behavior.

After a gestation period of 210–255 days, does give birth to one, rarely two, fawns; at three or four weeks of life, fawns follow mothers. When a calf is three months old, mother grazes elsewhere and returns to it morning and evening to nurse. Lactation lasts till the next rut. Both males and females are sexual matured at one and a half years, though females mate at two and a half years and males at 3–5 years. Young bulls are not allowed to participate in rut by dominating rivals.

They keep a high reproductive rate, annually increasing in numbers to 30%. In a peak of reproduction, they extinguish forage resources, which leads to a population crash and brings trouble to other ungulates. Growth of population impeded by high mortality (some winters to 50%) due to diseases, affect of heavy and deep snow, predators, and poaching. The mortality among calves is the highest.

conservation status

As game subjects, they can survive in densely populated countries due to skillful management and conservation measures. In Europe, they are considered endangered, as are red deer in Corsica and Sardinia. In North Africa, C. e. barbarus is Lower Risk/Near Threatened. The red deer inhabiting Central Asia and adjacent Afghanistan, the C. e. hanglu, are Vulnerable. In Sinkiang, the C. e. yarkandensis is Endangered and believed to be extinct. Four other subspecies are listed as Data Deficient.

significance to humans

Important sport game, and in New Zealand of commercial importance also. Since ancient times, value and appreciation of venison has increased, as well as for skins used for manufacturing the best suede. Since the end of 1960s, velvet antlers, tails, pizzles, and sinews are sold to Asia for traditional medicines. Red deer farm production developed so rapidly that they might be considered as a domestic animal. Today, there are more 65,000 deer at Chinese farms (Cervus elaphus xanthopygus, C. e. songarius). In Russia, mostly C. e. sibiricus are farmed.

White-lipped deer

Cervus albirostris

taxonomy

Cervus albirostris Przewalski, 1883, Kansu, China.

other common names

English: Thorold's deer; French: Cerf de Thorold; German: Weisslippenhirsch.

physical characteristics

Large: shoulder height: 4–4.3 ft (120–130 cm); body length: 6.3–6.6 ft (190–200 cm); tail length: 4–5 in (10–12 cm); weight: 500 lb (230 kg). The deer muzzle, as well upper and lower lips, gorge, and orbit surroundings are pure white. General brown color of coat is ornate in summer with whitish spots, which nearly disappear in autumn and change to grayish brown with creamy under parts. Hairs at the rear back grow forward, giving an appearance of a saddle. Hooves are wide, tall, hard, adapted to mobility. Antlers span is to 4.2 ft (1.3 m), and carry five to six flattened tines, each antler reaching a weight to 15 lb (7 kg).

distribution

Tibetan Plateau in China.

habitat

Inhabits forests interchanged with clearings, shrub lands, keeps to alpine meadows at altitudes more than 11,500 ft (3,500 m), and to the border of vegetation that, in Tibet, is at 16,400 ft (5,000 m).

behavior

Sedentary, undertake small vertical migrations. Does and year-lings live in groups to 40 individuals, while stags keep solitary or in small group (to eight animals). Social bonds within groups are strong. At rut, mixed herds unite stags, does, and calves in congregations to 200–300 deer (average number 50). Each mixed herd comprises one to eight stags, very aggressive towards each other. Deer easily climb and run across steep mountain slopes due to specific features of their hooves. Often prey of hunting, they are very wary and cannot be easily observed in the wild.

feeding ecology and diet

Grasses.

reproductive biology

Polygynous. Rut occurs in September–November, gestation period is 7.5–8.3 months (according to other data, 270 days), calving takes place from the end of May to beginning of July, rarely to August. Usually it is one young per birth. Does start reproduction at age three years, stags first mate at five years of age. Life expectancy is to 19 years (in captivity).

conservation status

Vulnerable. Previously distributed over eastern Tibet, but currently it occurs from the vicinity of Lhasa eastward into western Sichuan and in the eastern two-thirds of Qinghai and into Gansu, where total numbers are estimated at 50,000–100,000. Low density and strong fragmentation of the population reflect both rugged mountains and human impact such as poaching and competition with livestock for pastures.

significance to humans

Hunting for venison, as well as a growing demand for antlers and other parts of body in Asian medicine.

Resources

Books

Baskin, Leonid, and Kjell Danell. Ecology of Ungulates. A Handbook of Species in Eastern Europe, Northern and Central Asia. Heidelberg: Springer Verlag, 2003.

Bedi, Ramesh. Wildlife of India. New Delhi: Bridgebasi Printers Private Ltd., 1984.

Flerov, Konstantin K. Musk Deer and Deer. Moscow: Izdatelstvo Akademii Nauk SSSR, 1952.

Geist, Valerius. Elk Country. Minoqua, WI: North Word Press, 1991.

——. Deer of the World: Their Evolution, Behavior, and Ecology. Mechanicsburg, PA: Stackpole Books, 1998.

Hudson, Robert J., Karl R. Drew, and Leonid M. Baskin. Wildlife Production Systems. Economic Utilization of Wild Ungulates. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989.

Harrington, R. "Evolution and Distribution of the Cervidae." In Biology of Deer Production, edited by P. F. Fennessy and K. R. Drew. Wellington: The Royal Society of New Zealand, 1985.

Hofmann, R. R. "Evolution Digestive Physiology of the Deer—Their Morphophysiological Specialization and Adaptation." In Biology of Deer Production, edited by P. F. Fennessy and K. R. Drew. Wellington: The Royal Society of New Zealand, 1985.

Schaller, George B. Wildlife of the Tibetan Steppe. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1998.

Sheng, Helin, and Lu Houji. The Mammalian of China. Beijing, China Forestry Publishing, 1999.

Leonid Baskin, PhD