Whistlers

(Pachycephalidae)

Class Aves

Order Passeriformes

Suborder Passeri (Oscines)

Family Pachycephalidae

Thumbnail description
Small to medium-small birds with large, rounded heads, stout bills, and loud, cheerful songs

Size
5–11 in (12.5–28 cm); 0.03–.24 lb (12.5–110g)

Number of genera, species
13 genera; 52–59 species

Habitat
Rainforest, forest, mangroves, woodland, savanna, shrub steppe, heath, grasslands, human habitation

Conservation status
Extinct: 1 species; Critically Endangered: 1 species; Vulnerable: 1 species; Near Threatened: 3 species

Distribution
Australia, New Zealand, New Guinea, Southwest Pacific islands, Micronesia, Philippines, Indonesia, South and Southeast Asia

Evolution and systematics

Early ornithologists focused on the hooked, rather robust bills of these birds to associate them with various groups of flycatchers or shrikes from other parts of the world. Whistlers and their kin are now believed to be part of the largely endemic Australo-Papuan songbird assemblage. Generic relationships within the family are poorly understood. As currently delimited, the Pachycephalidae comprises a central cluster of three genera (whistlers Pachycephala, shrike-thrushes Colluricincla, and pitohuis Pitohui) and several smaller ones, some whose affinities may lie elsewhere. With 26 to 33 recognized species, whistlers constitute the largest and most widespread genus. Four species are sometimes merged with Pachycephala or, alternatively, each is segregated into its own monotypic genus, the rufous-naped whistler (Aleadryas rufinucha) and mottled whistler (Rhagologus leucostigma) of New Guinea and the yellow-flanked whistler (Hylocitrea bonensis) and maroon-backed whistler (Coracornis raveni) of Sulawesi.

The six species of shrike-thrushes resemble oversized whistlers and the pitohuis seem larger versions yet. The crested bellbird (Oreoica gutturalis) suggests a large shrike-thrush and is probably closely related. The three isolated populations of shrike-tits (Falcunculus) have been considered separate species or a single species. They share with the ploughbill (Eulacestoma nigropectus) a peculiarly shaped bill. It has not been determined if this similarity in bill structure is convergent or indicative of a close relationship among genera. The goldenface (Pachycare flavogrisea) has traditionally been placed with whistlers, but this proposed relationship has received little scrutiny.

Two problematic New Zealand genera have also been allied to this family. Mohoua, with which Finschia has been united, has three species that were long uncomfortably placed with various warbler groups. Biochemical studies point to Mohoua being part of the whistler assemblage. The extinct piopio (Turnagra capensis) is of uncertain affinities. There is competing evidence that it is closest to the bowerbirds (Ptilonorhynchidae) or to this family. Sometimes it is maintained in its own family.

A feature of the group that has attracted attention is the considerable geographic variation exhibited by some species.

This phenomenon reaches its apex in the golden whistler (Pachycephala pectoralis). About 70 subspecies are accepted. The complex pattern of variation disguises connections among populations, and some subspecies differ more from each other in plumage than from related species.

Physical characteristics

Birds in this family range in length from the 5 in (12.5 cm) goldenface to the 11 in (28.0 cm) rusty pitohui (Pitohui ferrugineus). They are characterized by a robust body and large, rounded head, the latter the reason for the earlier name "thickhead" bestowed to whistlers and as a group name for the family. Legs and feet are strong, wings broad and rounded, and tail unadorned. The bills are robust, although often of moderate length and, in some of the larger species, rather imposing, especially when attached to the finger of an unwary handler. There is a shrike-like hook at the tip, part of the origin of the name "shrike-thrush" for the thrush-sized species in the genus Colluricincla. Together with a well-developed notch, this makes the bill efficient at grasping prey. The most specialized bills are those of the shrike-tits and ploughbill. These are strongly laterally compressed, making them much deeper than wide. The shrike-tits, in particular, are endowed with powerful jaw muscles. Rictal bristles are generally not strongly developed in this family and may be absent in some forms. Members of this family rarely have adornments of the plumage or other parts of the body. The crested bellbird, crested pitohui (Pitohui cristatus), and the shrike-tits have distinct crests. The adult male ploughbill has two round, pink wattles at the base of its bill, while the bare-throated whistler (Pachycephala nudigula) has a naked patch of colored skin on the throat.

The predominating plumage colors are rather somber— various browns, rufous, gray, and olive—with white and black less frequent, and in a few species, bright yellow. Brightly colored species often have boldly contrasting patterns. The variable pitohui (Pitohui kirhocephalus) has large areas of black and dark rufous, and a number of whistlers have a white throat, bordered by a black breast band, which separates it from differently colored underparts. Species with bright males are often sexually dimorphic, with the female being plain brownish or grayish, occasionally with streaked underparts. More drably plumaged species usually show few differences between the sexes. In the unusually patterned mottled whistler, females are much more heavily spotted than males. Chicks and juveniles of most species have an unmarked rufous plumage. Parts of this are retained in immatures, particularly on secondaries and secondary coverts; these feathers are very noticeable in some young whistlers.

The geographic variation in plumage in the golden whistler is remarkable. Across this species' distribution, the head may be gray, black, or olive; nape collar yellow or absent; throat white, yellow, or black; breast band black or absent; and back gray, olive, or black. Each population combines a different selection of these to produce marked variation in color patterns. In birds of Norfolk Island, the bright plumage of the male has been lost and both sexes resemble the brown female. Females exhibit more limited geographical variation. They can range from dull grays or browns to bright yellows approaching colors of the males.

Distribution

Although the Pachycephalidae reaches its greatest diversity in New Guinea and Australia, some species have a much wider distribution and the family ranges from southeast India through Malaysia, Borneo, and Sulawesi, north to the Philippines and Palau in Micronesia, and east to Fiji, Tonga, Samoa, and other Pacific islands. The endemic New Zealand genera Mohoua and Turnagra may also belong in this group. On the periphery of the family distribution, there is usually only a single species at any locality. In the core area, several can coexist. New Guinea has 25 species and Australia, 14–16.

Habitat

This family is represented in a variety of habitats. Most species in the tropics inhabit rainforest; those in more temperate regions are found in forests and woodlands; some, like the crested bellbird, occur throughout the arid zones of Australia. Wide-ranging species may be found in a number of habitat types; the gray shrike-thrush, for example, can be encountered in almost any wooded habitat except dense rain-forest. Other species have quite specific habitat requirements. The mangrove whistler (Pachycephala grisola) and white-breasted whistler (Pachycephala lanioides) are restricted to stands of mangrove, and the sandstone shrike-thrush (Colluricincla woodwardi) is found only on sandstone escarpments dissected by gorges.

Behavior

During the breeding season, these birds are strongly territorial, and both sexes help defend the territory. In the nonbreeding season, individuals are generally solitary, other than in a few more social species, such as some pitohuis, which are always encountered in small parties.

Most species appear to be sedentary or, at best, locally nomadic. The notable exception is the rufous whistler (Pachycephala rufiventris). Populations in the southeast of mainland Australia are strongly migratory. On her study site in the tablelands of northeastern New South Wales, Lynda Bridges found that birds arrived in early September and remained through summer, departing in April.

The name "whistler" is well earned: they and the shrike-thrushes are among the most outstanding avian songsters in this part of the world. Each species has a song that differs in its phrases yet is usually sufficiently characteristic to be immediately recognizable as belonging to a member of this family. The enthusiastic songs of whistlers are pitched higher than those of shrike-thrushes and are longer, but those of shrike-thrushes are the stronger and richer. Duetting has been recorded for at least two species of pitohui and one whistler. One of the most arresting sounds of inland Australia is the song of the crested bellbird. Its odd bell-like notes and ventriloquial quality are distinctive. Shrike-tits songs lack the power and quality of these other birds.

During the breeding season, birds advertise territories with frequent, loud bursts of song. Birds are vocal during the rest of the year, but less regularly. Males, females, and even the young of many species are enthusiastic singers. Some whistlers have an interesting reaction to a loud, sudden noise, such as a rifle shot or roll of thunder: they burst into a short, loud outpouring of song.

Feeding ecology and diet

Whistlers and their relatives are, for the most part, rather sedate feeders. They search foliage and limbs in a methodical fashion, gleaning prey from leaves or bark, and some pick items from the ground by pouncing. Because these species do not pursue flying insects, most lack rictal bristles of more aerial insectivorous birds. Most species feed in the top to middle of the canopy, but some like the rufous-naped whistler and olive whistler (Pachycephala olivacea) forage in low dense understory. The larger shrike-thrushes and, more frequently, the crested bellbird feed on the ground, hopping in a thrush-like manner. The ploughbill and shrike-tits use their strong bills to strip bark from branches, feeding on insects they expose.

The main prey are insects and other small invertebrates. The mangrove-inhabiting white-breasted whistler frequently eats small crabs and small mollusks. The larger species of shrike-thrushes opportunistically take eggs, baby birds, and small vertebrates. Many species include fruit, usually berries, in their diets. Some species of pitohuis include considerable amount of fruit, and the mottled whistler and yellow-flanked whistler are predominantly frugivorous.

Members of this family generally feed solitarily. But shriketits forage gregariously, several individuals maintaining a small group as they hunt for insects. Pitohuis commonly join mixed feeding parties with similarly colored species.

Reproductive biology

For many New Guinea species, breeding begins late in the dry season, extending into the first half of the wet season. In temperate regions, breeding is from late winter-early spring through mid to late summer. Arid zone species are more opportunistic, breeding as conditions permit. Most have a single brood per season; some attempt two or three clutches.

In the golden whistler and gray shrike-thrush, both male and female contribute to nest construction, incubation of eggs, and care of young. The rufous whistler is similar, except that the female builds the nest. In shrike-tits, the female does most nest construction and incubation, and both adults care for young; additional birds serve as helpers at the nest. Helpers are also known for the whitehead (Mohoua albicilla), in which the female builds the nest. Incubation may be by both parents at some nests or by the female at others. The latter tend to be nests with helpers. After hatching, the chicks are fed by the parents and the helpers.

In the whistlers, the nest can range from the substantial bowl built by the red-lored whistler (Pachycephala rufogularis) to the thin, flimsy cup of the mangrove whistler. Twigs and bark comprise much of the coarsely constructed nest of many species. In habitats with taller trees, nests may be higher, up to 33 ft (10 m) in the case of the rufous whistler. Species from more arid areas, where trees are shorter, and those favoring low, dense shrubs, often place the nest within 3 ft (100 cm) of the ground. Nests may be situated in a tree fork, shrub, or dense vegetation. The nests of shrike-thrushes, pitohuis, and the crested bellbird resemble those of whistlers, although they are generally larger. The sandstone shrike-thrush, which lives on rugged sandstone escarpments with few trees, places its nest of porcupine grass rootlets on a cliff edge or in a crevice. Compared to the nests of most members of this family, those of shrike-tits are made of finer material. The deep cup or goblet is constructed of finely shredded bark bound with spider web and lined with bark and grass. Nests of the New Zealand species of Mohoua are also made of finer material. Moss, lichens, bark strips, and leaf skeletons are used to make a compact cup, bound with spider web. This is usually placed in a fork, but may be suspended from small branches. The crested bellbird has the unusual habit of placing paralyzed caterpillars around the rim of the nest during incubation; the purpose of this behavior is unknown. Clutch size, where known, is two to three, sometimes four, eggs. These are covered with spots and blotches, but the color of these, and that of the background, vary considerably within the family. The background may be white, light to dark pink, cream, buff, olive, or salmon, with markings of black, browns, brick, or lavender. Incubation and fledgling periods are unrecorded for many, perhaps most, species. Where these are known, incubation varies from 14 in some whistlers to 21 days in the brown creeper (Mohoua novaeseelandiae). The nesting period also lasts 14–21 days.

Conservation status

The Sangihe shrike-thrush (Colluricincla sanghirensis) is rated as Critically Endangered by the IUCN. Known only from a single 19th century specimen until rediscovered in 1995, this species may have fewer than 100 individuals left. There has been almost total loss of forest on its small Indonesian island of Sangihe.

The yellowhead (Mohoua ochrocephala) occurs on the North Island of New Zealand. Periodic irruptions of the introduced stoat result in massive losses (50–100%) of eggs, chicks, and adult females. The range is now fragmented through extirpation of local populations. IUCN lists this species as Vulnerable.

The piopio was common on both New Zealand islands in the 1870s, but started a rapid decline in the 1880s. The last sightings were in 1950–60s. Its extinction has been attributed to predation by introduced rats and loss of habitat.

Three species are considered Near Threatened. The redlored whistler of Australia, Tongan whistler (Pachycephala jacquinoti) of Tonga, and white-bellied pitohui (Pitohui incertus) of New Guinea almost meet the criteria for listing as Vulnerable. Contributing factors include loss of habitat, introduced animals, and small known ranges.

Significance to humans

A few species are shy but most are curious and tame. In parks and inhabited areas, this confiding and vocal nature draws attention. Many species readily respond to human whistles and squeaks, and so can be readily attracted. The gray shrike-thrush will nest in potted plants around houses. For the most part, however, these birds remain unfamiliar to most of the public.

New Guinea inhabitants reported that pitohuis were bad eating birds. In 1992, Jack Dumbacher and his colleagues discovered that these birds had a strong toxin in their feathers and soft tissue, which confer this unpalatibility.

Species accounts

List of Species

Eastern shrike-tit

Falcunculus frontatus

subfamily

Pachycephalinae

taxonomy

Lanius frontatus Latham, 1801, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia.

other common names

English: Crested shrike-tit; French: Falconelle à casque; German: Meisendickkopf; Spanish: Carbonero Verdugo Crestado.

physical characteristics

6.3–7.5 in (16–19 cm); 0.05–0.07 lb (24–32 g). A short-billed bird with distinctive black crest, white head, and black stripe from eye to shoulder.

distribution

East and southeast Australia.

habitat

Eucalypt forest and woodland, occasionally other vegetation types.

behavior

Sedentary, territorial, usually seen in small family groups. Generally quiet, unobtrusive, but often produces a great deal of noise when foraging.

feeding ecology and diet

Strictly arboreal. Forages for insects and spiders among outer foliage by gleaning and under loose bark by prising it away with bill.

reproductive biology

Breeds August–January; one brood per year. Female does most nest construction and incubation; both adults care for young. Helpers at the nest have been reported. Nest is a deep cup or goblet of finely shredded bark bound with spider web and placed in an upright, usually three-pronged fork, 33–100 ft (10–30 m) above ground. The two to three spotted eggs take 16–19 days to hatch; nesting period 15–17 days.

conservation status

Not threatened, but potentially vulnerable to habitat loss.

significance to humans

None known.

Rufous-naped whistler

Aleadryas rufinucha

subfamily

Pachycephalinae

taxonomy

Pachycephala rufinucha Sclater, 1874, New Guinea, mountains of Vogelkop. Five subspecies.

other common names

French: Siffleur à nuque rousse; German: Rotnacken-Dickkopf; Spanish: Chiflador de Nuca Rufa.

physical characteristics

6.5–7 in (16.5–18 cm); 0.03–0.09 lb (37.5–42.5 g). Gray crown with rufous nape, yellow throat, and olive-brown upperparts.

distribution

New Guinea from 3,960 to 11,880 ft (1,200 to 3,600 m), mainly 4,600–8,500 ft (1,400–2,600 m); A. r. rufinucha: northwest New Guinea; A. r. niveifrons: west and central New Guinea; A. r. gamblei: southeast New Guinea; A. r. prasinonota: Herzog Mountains, northeast New Guinea; A. r. lochmia: Huon Peninsula, northeast New Guinea.

habitat

Mountain forest and secondary growth.

behavior

Sedentary. Spends most of its time on the ground or in low vegetation, sometimes moving to higher elevations in the forest.

feeding ecology and diet

Eats mainly insects and small invertebrates, also fruit.

reproductive biology

Two white eggs with dark markings laid in a deep cup nest of moss, ferns, and rootlets, usually placed low in a sapling, sometimes in a higher site.

conservation status

Not threatened. Moderately common but relatively secretive.

significance to humans

None known.

Regent whistler

Pachycephala schlegelii

subfamily

Pachycephalinae

taxonomy

Pachycephala schlegelii Schlegel, 1871, Arfak Mountains, New Guinea. Three subspecies.

other common names

English: Schlegel's whistler; French: Siffleur de Schlegel; German: Schlegeldickkopf; Spanish: Chiflador de Schlegel.

physical characteristics

5.9–6.5 in (15–16.5 cm); 0.04–0.05 lb (19.5–24.8 g). Black head, throat, and wing and tail coverts; orange belly; and brownish mantle with yellow stripe.

distribution

New Guinea from about 4,290 to 12,000 ft (1,300 to 3,500 m), mainly above 6,100 ft (1,850 m). P. s. schlegelii: northwest New Guinea; P. s. cyclopum: north central New Guinea; P. s. obscurior: central, east, and northeast New Guinea.

habitat

Inhabits forest and forest edges.

behavior

Usually seen singly or in pairs. During display the crown feathers are raised and the nape feathers erected across back of the head.

feeding ecology and diet

Gleans insects, spiders, and seeds.

reproductive biology

Nesting habits undescribed. Lays two white eggs spotted with black and lavender.

conservation status

Not threatened. Common to abundant in middle elevations and above, but scarce lower down.

significance to humans

None known.

Golden whistler

Pachycephala pectoralis

subfamily

Pachycephalinae

taxonomy

Muscicapa pectoralis Latham, 1801, Port Jackson, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia. Up to 70 subspecies.

other common names

English: Golden-breasted whistler; French: Siffleur doré; German: Gelbbauch-Dickkopf; Spanish: Chiflador Dorado.

physical characteristics

5.9–7.5 in (15–19 cm); 0.05–0.06 lb (21–28 g). Black head and bill with golden yellow underparts and white patch on throat.

distribution

Widely distributed from east Indonesia through New Guinea and Australia to southwest Pacific islands as far as Fiji. From sea level to above 6,900 ft (2,100 m) on some islands.

habitat

A broad range of habitat types, from rainforest, secondary growth, eucalypt forest, and drier woodlands, occasionally mangroves and urban areas.

behavior

Territorial; usually solitary, sometimes in pairs. Easily observed and can be attracted by whistles. Mainly found in lower and middle storys, less often in lower canopy. Some winter movements of birds in southeast Australia to areas north and west, including dispersal of young and altitudinal movement from higher altitudes; mainly sedentary elsewhere in range. Behavior generally quiet, unobtrusive except when breeding, when very vocal.

feeding ecology and diet

Forages primarily in thickets and low and middle storys. Obtains food mainly by gleaning from branches, twigs, and foliage; occasionally hover-gleaning or hawking. Food includes insects, spiders, and berries.

reproductive biology

In Australia, breeding takes place from September to January, with one brood being reared. The male and female build the cup-like nest of sticks, twigs, grass, and bark, bound with spider web, placing it in fork or thick shrub up to 20 ft (6 m) above ground. The clutch is one to three eggs. These can be quite variable in color, with a background of cream, cream-buff, pale olive or salmon, marked with olive brown or reddish brown and gray, and underlying lavender blotches, which often form a cap at the larger end. Both sexes share incubation (14–17 days) and care of young (fledging period 10–13 days).

conservation status

Not threatened. Common to moderately common in most parts of range.

significance to humans

None known.

Rufous whistler

Pachycephala rufiventris

subfamily

Pachycephalinae

taxonomy

Sylvia rufiventris Latham, 1801, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia. Five subspecies.

other common names

English: Rufous-breasted whistler; French: Siffleur itchong; German: Schlichtmantel-Dickkopf; Spanish: Chiflador Rufo.

physical characteristics

6.5–7.1 in (16.3–18.1 cm); 0.7–1.0 oz (20–27 g). Gray with rufous underparts and white patch on throat.

distribution

P. r. rufiventris: east, central, west and south Australia; P. r. pallida: northeast Australia; P. r. minor: Melville and Bathurst Islands; P. r. falcata: northwest and north central Australia; P.r. xanthetraea: New Caledonia.

habitat

Open eucalypt forest and woodland, drier woodland and scrubs.

behavior

Territorial. Very vocal during breeding and can be stimulated into bouts of singing by sudden loud noises. Tame, easily attracted by whistling. Migratory in southeast Australia; elsewhere partly migratory, nomadic, or sedentary.

feeding ecology and diet

Forages sedately in middle to upper vegetation layers for insects, spiders, and berries.

reproductive biology

Breeds Sep.–Feb., one or two broods per season. Female builds nest, but both sexes incubate and care for young. Nest is a bowl of twigs and grasses, bound with spider web, and lined with grass and rootlets; it is placed up to 33 ft (10 m) above ground. Eggs, usually two or three in a clutch, are light olive-green with dark brown and lavender-gray blotches. Incubation 15 days.

conservation status

Not threatened. Common and widespread.

significance to humans

None known.

Little shrike-thrush

Colluricincla megarhyncha

subfamily

Pachycephalinae

taxonomy

Muscicapa megarhyncha Quoy and Gaimard, 1830, Dorey, Vogelkop, New Guinea. Thirty subspecies.

other common names

English: Rufous shrike-thrush; French: Pitohui châtain; German: Waldgudilang; Spanish: Charlatán Verdugo Rufo.

physical characteristics

6.7–7.5 in (17–19 cm); 1.1–1.5 oz (30–43 g). Gray-brown upperparts and bill; whitish throat and rufous-beige under-parts.

distribution

New Guinea and surrounding islands; north and east Australia. Mainly in the lowlands, hills, and lower mountains up to about 6,100 ft (1,850 m), locally up to 7,590 ft (2,300 m).

habitat

Wide range of humid timbered habitats, including rainforest, tall secondary growth, mangroves, swamp and riverine vegetation, and coastal woodland.

behavior

Sedentary, territorial at all seasons. Behavior generally quiet, unobtrusive, heard far more often than seen. Becomes quite vocal when breeding.

feeding ecology and diet

Food is mainly insects, spiders, small snails, and occasionally fruit, obtained mostly by gleaning.

reproductive biology

In Australia, breeding season is Sep.–Feb. with one brood per season; in New Guinea, there are two breeding periods, one in the late dry to early wet season, and a second one in the late wet to early dry season. The nest, a deep cup of bark and dry leaves bound with spider web, is placed in upright fork or dense tangle of vegetation. The female lays two to three white to pale pinkish cream eggs, adorned with brown spots and lilac blotches. Incubation at about 19 days; fledging at about 12 days.

conservation status

Not threatened. Common to abundant in New Guinea; common in northeast Australia, becoming scarcer and local southwards, uncommon in north central Australia.

significance to humans

None known.

Gray shrike-thrush

Colluricincla harmonica

subfamily

Pachycephalinae

taxonomy

Turdus harmonicus Latham, 1801, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia. Six subspecies.

other common names

Brown or western shrike-thrush; French: Pitohui gris; German: Graubrust-Gudilang; Spanish: Charlatán Verdugo Gris.

physical characteristics

8.9–9.8 in (22.5–25.0 cm); 0.13–0.16 lb (58–74 g). Gray head, tail coverts and underparts with brownish back and wings.

distribution

C. h. brunnea: northwest and north Australia; C. h. superciliosa: northeast Australia; C. h. tachycrypta: southeast New Guinea; C.h. harmonica: southeast and east central Australia; C. h. strigata: Tasmania; C. h. rufiventris: southwest Australia.

habitat

May be found in many habitat types, including rainforest, eucalypt forest and woodland, mangroves, dry open woodlands, riverine vegetation, urban parks, and gardens, from sea level up to about 5,610 ft (1,700 m).

behavior

Often tame in east, shy in west. Sedentary, although young of year may disperse some distance. Territorial in all seasons. Generally unobtrusive except when singing; most vocal when breeding. Loud musical song varies geographically and among individuals, who have a wide repertoire.

feeding ecology and diet

Forages deliberately on the ground, logs, limbs and trunks of trees, and in foliage. Eats insects, spiders and other invertebrates, small vertebrates including lizards, nestling birds, and small mammals. Prey obtained mainly by gleaning from bark and leaves, sometimes from the ground.

reproductive biology

Breeds July–February, opportunistically in drier areas, producing one to two broods per season. Sexes share nest building, incubation, and care of young. Nest is a cup of bark, grass, other dry vegetation, lined with rootlets. It is placed in fork or tangle of vegetation, in crevice, or on stump, ledge or ground, usually within 20 ft (6 m) of ground. The two to four white eggs are blotched and spotted with gray and olive-brown. Incubation 17–18 days.

conservation status

Not threatened. Common in Australia, although in west decreasing round human habitation; fairly common to scarce in New Guinea, but possibly expanding range.

significance to humans

None known.

Crested bellbird

Oreoica gutturalis

subfamily

Pachycephalinae

taxonomy

Falcunculus gutturalis Vigors and Horsfield, 1827, Bass Strait. Two subspecies.

other common names

French: Carillonneur huppé; German: Haubengudilang; Spanish: Campanero Crestado.

physical characteristics

8.3–9.1 in (21–23 cm); 0.13–0.15 lb (57–67 g). Brownish upperparts with white around bill, black crest tip and breast, and buff belly.

distribution

O. g. gutturalis: South, southwest and inland southeast Australia; O. g. pallescens: northern, west central, and central Australia.

habitat

Arid inland and coastal woodlands and scrubs.

behavior

Sedentary or locally nomadic in more arid areas. Territorial through year, rather solitary except when breeding. Unobtrusive, keeping to cover, except when male sings from elevated perch. Unusual and distinctive song consists of two slow, then three fast ringing notes, reminiscent of a cowbell; has a ventriloquial effect, making the singing bird difficult to locate.

feeding ecology and diet

Insects and seeds. Forages on the ground, moving by hops.

reproductive biology

Breeding season August–January, usually earlier in south, later in north, and often opportunistically in more arid regions. Depending on conditions, a second brood may be raised. The nest, a deep cup of bark strips, short twigs, leaves, and grass, is placed in fork, on top of broken stump, or in dense shrub, 3.3–10 ft (1–3 m) from ground. An odd and unexplained habit is the placement of paralyzed caterpillars around rim of the nest during incubation. The two to four eggs are pale bluish white with black, brown, and lavender-gray blotches. Both sexes incubate (14–17 days). Fledging period 11–12 days.

conservation status

Common in interior, decreasing towards coastal districts and more humid regions, populations may be contracting in some regions.

significance to humans

None known.

Variable pitohui

Pitohui kirhocephalus

subfamily

Pachycephalinae

taxonomy

Lanius kirhocephalus Lesson and Garnot, 1827, Dorey, Vogelkop, New Guinea. Twenty-one subspecies.

other common names

French: Pitohui variable; German: Okkerpitohui; Spanish: Pitojuí Variable.

physical characteristics

9–10 in (23–25.5 cm); 0.19–0.22 lb (85–100 g). Black head and primary feathers with orange underparts, rufous back and secondaries, and black legs.

distribution

New Guinea and satellite islands.

habitat

Thick vegetation along forest edges and in secondary growth and disturbed forest up to 3,630 ft (1,100 m), in places to 4,950 ft (1,500 m).

behavior

Gregarious, usually seen in pairs or small parties. Secretive, hides in dense vegetation. Has a loud musical voice; duetting between birds has been recorded.

feeding ecology and diet

Insects and fruit. Often joins other species in mixed-species foraging flocks.

reproductive biology

Nesting habits and eggs are undescribed.

conservation status

Not threatened. Abundance variable across range; very common in places, rare or absent in others.

significance to humans

Avoided as food because of unpleasant taste, known to be due to toxin in tissues.

Whitehead

Mohoua albicilla

subfamily

Mohouinae

taxonomy

Fringilla albicilla Lesson, 1830, Bay of Islands, North Island, New Zealand.

other common names

French: Mohoua à tête blanche; German: Weissköpfchen; Spanish: Cabeza Blanca.

physical characteristics

5.9 in (15 cm); female 0.4–0.6 lb (12.3–16.4 g), male 0.6–0.7 oz (16.6–19.3 g). Light reddish brown nape and upperparts with white head to creamy underparts.

distribution

North Island, New Zealand.

habitat

Native forest and scrub, occasionally woodland and exotic pines, up to 4,620 ft (1,400 m).

behavior

Very social in nonbreeding season, with flocks up to 70 birds. In breeding season, form family parties and flocks of up to 10 birds.

feeding ecology and diet

Eat insects, as well as seeds and fruit, foraging from ground to canopy. Most prey gleaned from foliage and branches. Bills used to flake off bark fragments.

reproductive biology

The nest is a compact cup in which two to four eggs are laid. Eggs variable in color from white to deep pink with yellowish to reddish brown markings. Male and female, or mainly female, incubate for about 17 days with fledging at 16–17 days. Nest commonly tended by three to four birds, including helpers.

conservation status

Not threatened. Once abundant across North Island, now in moderate numbers only in forested areas. Plentiful on some offshore islands.

significance to humans

None known.

Resources

Books

Coates, B. J. The Birds of Papua New Guinea. Vol. 2, Passerines. Aderley: Dove Publications, 1993.

Higgins, P. J. and J. M. Peter, eds. Handbook of Australian, New Zealand and Antarctic Birds. Vol. 6, Pardalotes to Figbird. Melbourne: Oxford University Press, in progress.

Schodde, R. and I. J. Mason. The Directory of Australian Birds. Passerines. Collingwood: CSIRO Publishing, 1999.

Periodicals

Bridges, L."Breeding Biology of a Migratory Population of the Rufous Whistler Pachycephala rufiventris." Emu 94 (1994): 106–115.

Dilks, P."Recovery of a Mohoua (Mohoua ochrocephala) Population following Predator Control in the Eglinton Valley, Fiordland, New Zealand."Notornis 46 (1999): 323–332.

Dumbacher, J. P.; "Evolution of Toxicity in Pitohuis: 1. Effects of Homobatrachotoxin on Chewing Lice (Order Phthiraptera)." Auk 116 (1999): 957–963.

Galbraith, I. C. J. "Variation, Relationships and Evolution in the Pachycephala pectoralis Superspecies (Aves, Muscicapidae)."Bulletin of the British Museum of Natural History 4 (1956): 133–225.

McDonald, P. G. "The Function of Vocalisations and Aggressive Behaviour Used by Male Rufous Whistlers, Pachycephala rufiventris." Emu 101 (2001): 65–72.

Rozendaal, F. G. and F. R. Lambert. "The Taxonomic and Conservation Status of Pinarolestes sanghirensis Oustalet 1881." Forktail 15 (1999): 1–13.

Organizations

Birds Australia. 415 Riversdale Road, Hawthorn East, Victoria 3123 Australia. Phone: +61 3 9882 2622. Fax: +61 3 98822677. E-mail: [email protected] Web site: <http://www.birdsaustralia.com.au>

Walter E. Boles, PhD