A fully developed writing system and literature in the Sumerian language emerge in Mesopotamia. It includes the first law codes and anonymous poetry. Political organization is by city-states. The Ram and Tree offering stand and Bull’s Head from a Harp are created in Ur.

2500* B.C.E.

Ebla is established in Syria-Palestine, becoming the earliest known city with a literate population.
Native peoples populate permanent settlements on the Pacific coast of South America along the Andes mountain range.

2500-2350* B.C.E.

The First Dynasty of Lagash, a leading city-state in Mesopotamia, flourishes.

2500-2200* B.C.E.

Early Helladic II culture flourishes on the Greek mainland.

2500-2000* B.C.E.

Early Kerma culture (Kingdom of Yeram)—characterized by black and brown pottery with incised decorations found in oval-shaped burials with stone superstructures—flourishes in Nubia.

2500-1800* B.C.E.

Early Minoan II culture—characterized by the earliest stone vessels, jewelry, copper daggers, imported obsidian, and textile manufacture—flourishes along areas by the Aegean and Mediterranean seas.

2350-2193* B.C.E.

The empire of Akkad is founded by Sargon, who organizes the military. He conquers much of the Euphrates River region and establishes trade with areas such as the Indus Valley, Crete, and the Persian Gulf.
The first known published poet, Enkheduanna, daughter of Sargon, writes “Hymn to Inanna.” Inanna was the Akkadian goddess of love and war.
The bronze sculpture Head of an Akkadian Ruler, possibly a representation of Sargon, is created in Niniveh. The Victory Stele of Naram-Sin, an iconographic sandstone monument commemorating the victory of Sargon’s son over a local mountain tribe, is carved in Mesopotamia.

2350-2150* B.C.E.

The Awan Dynasty of the Old Elamite Period flourishes on the Iranian Plateau.

2200 B.C.E.

People identified as “Greeks” arrive on the Greek mainland during the Bronze Age, establishing the Early Helladic III Period.

2193-2100* B.C.E.

The Gutians, tribesmen from the northeastern mountains, invade and settle in North Mesopotamia, ending the Akkadian empire.

2150* B.C.E.

Gudea becomes governor of Lagash, a leading Sumerian city-state in Mesopotamia. A series of statues of Gudea are created.

2112-2004* B.C.E.

The Third Dynasty of Ur flourishes. Ur becomes the leading Sumerian city-state. The earliest version of the Gilgamesh epic known in the Sumerian language is written, and the Ziggarat of Ur, a three-storied stepped brick pyramid-like structure, is built.

2100-1900* B.C.E.

The Shimaskhi Dynasty of the Old Elamite Period flourishes on the Iranian Plateau.

2004* B.C.E.

Amorites, a Caananite people from the mountainous northern Jordan River region, invade Mesopotamia and end the Sumerian city-states.

2000* B.C.E.

The Amorites sack Ebla, establishing their temple and a palace in the city.

2000-1550* B.C.E.

Palaces and cities are established on Crete during what is known as the Middle Minoan Period. The earliest Greek writing, called Linear A and B, is developed in the Aegean area and on islands in the region.

2000-1500* B.C.E.

An Indo-European people known as the Hittites arrive in Anatolia. They establish a Middle Bronze Age city-state culture known as the Hittite Old Kingdom.

1980-1630* B.C.E.

The earliest alphabetic writing of Semitic languages occurs.
Nubia is occupied by Egyptian forces.

1950-1750* B.C.E.

Independent city-states are established in Anatolia.

1900* B.C.E.

The Assyrian trading colony of Kanesh (present-day Kültepe in Turkey) is active in Anatolia.
Middle Helladic Period flourishes on the mainland of Greece. It is characterized by pottery with a soapy texture.

1900-1650* B.C.E.

A new culture (designated C group IIA), characterized by rectangular burials with superstructures and clay figurines, flourishes in Nubia.

1900-1500* B.C.E.

The Sukkalmakh Dynasty (Ebartids) of the Old Elamite Period flourishes on the Iranian Plateau.

1894* B.C.E.

The old Babylonian Period, a time in which several city-states vied for power, begins in Mesopotamia.
The earliest known flood narrative appears in the poem The Atrakhasis which is composed in the Akkadian language.

1813* B.C.E.

Shamshi-Adad I, an Amorite king, conquers Ashur (Assyria).

1792-1750* B.C.E.

The Babylonian king Hammurabi issues a written law code in Mesopotamia and orders the carving of a stele with the law code.

1700-1550* B.C.E

A new group of people (designated as Classic C II B)—characterized by massive tumuli with chapels over graves and the use of pottery, figurines, and cattle skulls as grave offerings—flourishes in Nubia.

1595* B.C.E.

The Hittite king Murshili I conquers parts of Syria and captures Babylon, ending the Old Babylonian Period.

* Denotes Circa Date

1595-1158* B.C.E.

The Kassite Dynasty takes control of Mesopotamia, ending the city-state period and establishing its capital in Babylon. The kingdom is a center of architectural and artistic achievement, and becomes known for trade and science.

1550* B.C.E.

The Indo-Iranian Mitanni empire emerges in northern Mesopotamia and competes with Egypt for control of Syria.
A Late Bronze Age Minoan artist creates the Octopus Vase, an example of dark-on-light pottery painting in the Marine Style. The Minoans also construct the Palace of Minos on the island of Crete.

1539-1075* B.C.E.

The Late Helladic (or Mycenean) Period flourishes on the Greek mainland. Several fortified population centers emerge, burial circles are constructed, and graves are filled with luxury items such as gold and art.
The Egyptians dominate in Nubia.

1530* B.C.E.

Ugarit flourishes as a city-state in Syria-Palestine. Its merchants trade with Cyprus and Greece, and its artists develop literature and ornamentation.

1456* B.C.E.

Thutmose III defeats a coalition of city-states at Megiddo.

1450* B.C.E.

Hittite king Tudkahliya I defeats the Assuwa (people from Asia Minor).

1400*B.C.E.

Minoan civilization declines in the Aegean.

1400-1200* B.C.E.

The Lion Gate is built in Hattusas (modern Bogazkale) in Anatolia, a Hittite religious center that was known as the City of Temples.

1322* B.C.E.

Tutankhamun’s widow asks the Hittite king to send her a husband; her prospective groom is murdered on the way to Egypt.

1274* B.C.E.

Troops of Ramesses II fight those of the Hittite king Muwattalli II at Qadesh in Syria.

1250* B.C.E.

An Elamite ziggurat is built in honor of the bull-god Inshushinak at Dur Untash on the Iranian Plateau.
The Lion Gate, a tomb portal of limestone and masonry in a Mycenae citadel, and the Treasury of Atreus, a fifty-foot domed masonry tomb, are built at Mycenae.

1245* B.C.E.

Ramesses II signs a treaty with the Hittite king Khattushili III. The two kingdoms agree to divide disputed lands, and the Egyptian king takes a Hittite princess as a wife.

1200* B.C.E.

The Sea Peoples, ancestors of the Philistines, destroy the Hittite Empire in Anatolia and initiate a Dark Age in the region. Ugarit experiences a decline of power, as do the city-states in Syria-Palestine. Another group, the Aramaeans, migrates out of the Arabian peninsula and arrives in Syria-Palestine, where they establish many centers, including the city of Damascus.

1200-1000* B.C.E.

Early Iron archaeological culture emerges in Syria-Palestine.

1200-759* B.C.E.

A Dark Age descends in the regions around the Aegean and Mediterranean Seas. Linear B writing disappears and there are few surviving records.

1183* B.C.E.

Troy, a city-state in northwest Asia Minor situated not far from the Dardanelles, is destroyed by the Greeks.

1158-1027* B.C.E.

The Second Dynasty of Isin, an ancient city located in southern Mesopotamia, is established by Marduk-kabit-ahheshu.

1150* B.C.E.

The Olmec of southern Mexico, living along the coast of the Gulf of Mexico, begin carving large stone heads, some as tall as nine feet, that appear to wear helmets. The Olmec also produce beautiful pottery and jewelry. Their culture spreads throughout Central America. The oldest known center for the Olmecs is at San Lorenzo.

1115-1077* B.C.E.

Assyrian king Tiglath-pileser I defeats the Mushki from southern Armenia and the small Human states of southern Armenia. He spreads Assyrian power into the lands around the Mediterranean Sea and fights against Babylonia, eventually plundering the capital.

1074-1057* B.C.E.

King Ashur-bel-kala of Assyria, the son of Tiglath-pileser I, continues Assyrian warfare against the Aramaeans and Babylonians, although his empire is unstable.

1050-1032* B.C.E.

Ashurnasirpal I, the brother of Ashur-bel-kala and new king, fights defensive actions against the enemies of Assyria.

1025-900* B.C.E.

The Geometric Period of art, especially in the painting of vases, is active on the Greek mainland, particularly in Athens.

1000 B.C.E.

Saul, the first king of the United Monarchy of Israel and Judah, defends his lands against the Philistines. He is killed at the battle of Mount Gilboa.

1000-960 B.C.E.

David, who succeeds Saul as king of the Israelites, conquers Jerusalem.

1000-612* B.C.E.

The Neo-Assyrian Empire develops in Mesopotamia.

960-932 B.C.E.

Solomon, the son of Bathsheba — the second wife of David — becomes king of the United Monarchy of Israel and Judah. He makes Palestine a trading center, as well as constructs many major temples and buildings.

932-911 B.C.E.

Jeroboam I of Israel, who had plotted against Solomon and Rehoboam, returns from exile and becomes king of the northern tribes. He makes his capital in Shechem in northern Israel.

931-915 B.C.E.

Rehoboam, the son of Solomon, becomes king of Judah, only to see Jeroboam withdraw the northern tribes. He then faces an invasion by the Egyptians.

915-913 B.C.E.

Abijah, the son of Rehoboam, becomes the second king of Judah.

913-873 B.C.E.

Asa, the son of Abijah, becomes king of Judah and purges his country of opposing religious cults.

911-910 B.C.E.

Nadab, the son of Jeroboam I, becomes king of Israel.

910-887 B.C.E.

Upon the death of Nadab, Baasha becomes king of Israel and attacks Judah.

900-331* B.C.E.

Syria-Palestine is dominated by Assyria, Babylon, and Persia.
The Napatan kings, named for the city in the Sudan where the Egyptian governors ruled, control Nubia.

887-886 B.C.E.

Elah, the son of Baasha, rules over Israel until he is assassinated in a palace coup d’état.

886 B.C.E.

Zimri, one of the generals who killed Elah, takes over the leadership of Israel.

886-875 B.C.E.

After defeating a rival claimant to the throne, Omri becomes the king of Israel. The Moabites, a people living around the Dead Sea, are subjugated.

883-859 B.C.E.

The Assyrian king Ashurnasirpal II rules Mesopotamia with an iron hand, reestablishing the former supremacy of the empire. He makes his capital at Nimrud on the east bank of the Tigris River. Assyrian artists create the Lion Hunt relief, which depicts archers in a horse-drawn chariot.

875-854 B.C.E.

King Ahab of Israel, the son of Omri, restores alliances with Judah and other local rivals. His forces defeat an Assyrian incursion at Karkar (853 b.c.e.), but he dies the following year fighting the Damascans.

873-849 B.C.E.

Jehoshaphat succeeds his father, Asa, as king of Judah. Allied with Israel, his troops fight against Syrian incursions.

858-824 B.C.E.

King Shalmaneser III of Assyria rules Mesopotamia. His troops conquer the Hittites and the Damascans, fight against the forces of Israel at Karkar (853 b.c.e.), and defeat the opposition on Tyre and Sidon.

854-853 B.C.E.

Ahab’s son, Ahaziah, serves as king of Israel. His troops were unable to defeat a revolt in Moab.

853-842 B.C.E.

Jehoram (or Jeram), another of Ahab’s sons, succeeds Ahaziah as king of Israel. With Judean aid his troops defeat the Moab opposition.

842* B.C.E.

Ahaziah, the son of Jeram, becomes king of Judah.
Jehu, an army commander, kills Jehoram and takes the throne of Israel. He also kills Ahaziah and destroys the royal family, making Athaliah the queen of Judah. Jehu wages war against the Damascans but is subservient to the Assyrians and tries to eliminate all followers of the god Baal. He rules until 815 b.c.e.

836-797 B.C.E.

Joash (or Jehoash) leads a revolt against Athaliah; he takes the throne after her assassination.

823-811 B.C.E.

Assyrian king Shamshi-Adad V rules in Mesopotamia. He wages war against Urartu, an emerging Armenian civilization.

815-799 B.C.E.

Joahz (or Jehoahas) succeeds his father, Jehu, as king of Israel.

810-783 B.C.E.

Adad-Nirari III of Assyria serves as king of Mesopotamia. His troops will fight against peoples to the west of his empire.

800* B.C.E.

The Urartu in Anatolia are defeated by the Assyrians.
The Olmec city of La Venta is established, becoming the most important center of Mesoamerican culture in Central America for almost four hundred years.

799-784 B.C.E.

Jehoash (or Joash) succeeds his father, Jehoahas, as king of Israel.

797-769 B.C.E.

Joash’s son, Amaziah, serves as king of Judah. He defeats the Edomites, who occupy the hilly lands south of the Dead Sea (in modern Jordan) in 798 b.c.e. The Israelites capture and assassinate him.

784-744 B.C.E.

Jeroboam II succeeds Joash as the king of Israel. He restores the traditional borders of Israel and captures Damascus.

776 B.C.E.

The earliest-known recorded observation of a solar eclipse is documented by the Chinese.

769-741 B.C.E.

Uzziah (or Azariah), the son of Amaziah, enjoys a prosperous reign as king of Judah. His troops defeat the Philistines. Despite his military successes, the Hebrew prophets Amos and Hosea warn of an eventual downfall because of rampant corruption.

760* B.C.E.

Greek colonizers begin to expand into Italy and Sicily.

760-747 B.C.E.

King Kashta of Kush, one in a line of hereditary Egyptianized Nubian rulers, conquers and rules Upper Egypt.

753 B.C.E.

Rome is allegedly founded by Romulus, leading to the development of a period of monarchical rule in Italy. The first king and religious leader, traditionally, is considered to be Numa Pompilius, who takes the throne in 715 b.c.e.

750* B.C.E.

Neo-Hittite states emerge in Anatolia.

750-550* B.C.E.

The Archaic Period flourishes on the Greek mainland. Greeks colonize Sicily, Italy, and the Ionian coast.

747-716 B.C.E.

King Piye of Kush controls both Nubia and Egypt.

744 B.C.E.

Zechariah succeeds Jeroboam as king of Israel. He is assassinated by Shallum, who in turn is killed by Menachem, who takes the throne. Menachem rules until 735 b.c.e.

744-727 B.C.E.

Tiglath-pileser III of Assyria rules in Mesopotamia. In 743 b.c.e. he attacks the Urarteans at Arpad. He then turns his attention in 739 b.c.e. To the west, forcing Judah and Israel, as well as smaller states, to submit to his authority.

743-642* B.C.E.

The Neo-Elamite Period, in which the Elamites meddle in Babylonian affairs, flourishes on the Iranian Plateau.

741-726 B.C.E.

King Jotham and King Ahaz of Judah serve as co-regents in Syria-Palestine.

735 B.C.E.

Tiglath-pileser III sends his forces against Urartu.

735-734 B.C.E.

Pekahiah, the son of King Menachem, serves as king of Israel.

734 B.C.E.

Ahaz rejects an alliance with Israel and seeks support of the Assyrians.

734-731 B.C.E.

Pekah reigns as king of Israel. He invades Judah in an attempt to force it into an alliance against Assyria. He dies in a conspiracy and is replaced by Hosea, whom the Assyrians claim to have put on the throne.

731 B.C.E.

Tiglath-pileser III is forced to return home to put down a revolt in Babylon, which he accomplishes by 728 b.c.e.

726-697 B.C.E.

King Hezekiah of Judah in Syria-Palestine rules. Twice he rebels against Assyrian domination but is forced to pay tribute.

725 B.C.E.

King Hosea of Israel rebels against Assyria, whose king, Shalmaneser V, orders an invasion of Samaria.

722 B.C.E.

Samaria is defeated, and the son and successor of Shalmaneser V, Sargon II, removes thousands of Israelites to captivity in Mesopotamia. During the next sixteen years Sargon captures most of the region and defeats Tyre after a long siege.

721 B.C.E.

Elamite king Humbanigash, along with Merodach-baladan of Babylon, attack Sargon’s forces at the indecisive battle of Der.

721-705 B.C.E.

Sargon II builds the Gate of the Citadel at Khorsabad (Dur Sharrukin) in Mesopotamia. The giant carvings depict two winged bulls with male faces.

720 B.C.E.

The Chinese build a canal connecting the Huai and Yellow Rivers.

716-702 B.C.E.

King Shabako of Kush rules in Nubia and in Egypt.

714 B.C.E.

Sargon II’s troops defeat Urartu. His forces next break the alliance of the southern Palestinian states with Egypt in 712 b.c.e.

710 B.C.E.

Merodach-baladan of Babylon revolts against Sargon II but is defeated and forced into exile. He returns in 703 b.c.e. to reclaim the throne but is again defeated by the Assyrians.

704-681 B.C.E.

King Sennacherib of Assyria reigns in Mesopotamia.

702-690 B.C.E.

King Shibitqu of Kush rules both Nubia and Egypt

700* B.C.E.

Celtic peoples begin settling in the Iberian Peninsula.

697-642* B.C.E.

King Manasseh, the son of Hezekiah, rules over Judah.

690* B.C.E.

Phrygia, a Thracian city-state in Asia Minor along the Black Sea, is attacked by the Cimmerians, a people who occupy most of the Crimea.

690-664 B.C.E.

King Taharqo of Kush rules in Nubia and in Egypt.

680-669 B.C.E.

Sennacherib’s son, Esarhaddon, becomes king of Assyria. He conquers Babylon, razes the Phoenician city of Sidon, and incorporates Egypt into his empire after capturing Memphis.

675* B.C.E.

Lydia, a city-state in western Anatolia, rises in power. The Lydians are credited with being the first people to employ coined money.

668-627 B.C.E.

Ashurbanipal succeeds Esarhaddon as king of Assyria. He attacks and defeats the Elamites, destroying the city of Susa in 639 b.c.e.

664-653 B.C.E.

King Tanwetamani of Kush rules in Nubia and in Egypt. The Assyrians are expelled from Egypt by the Saite kings of Dynasty 26.

660 B.C.E.

The Persian prophet Zoroaster, the founder of Zoroastrianism, is born.

Jimmu becomes the first emperor of Japan, according to tradition.

658 B.C.E.

Lydian, Ionian, and Carian mercenaries join the Egyptians in their fight against the Assyrians.

653 B.C.E.

The Median king Phraortes, who conquered many of the peoples in the region, is killed in battle against the Assyrians.

653-643 B.C.E.

King Atlanersa of Kush rules over Nubia.

650 B.C.E.

The carved limestone relief Dying Lioness, depicting the feline being pierced by three arrows, is created in Ninevah.

650-590* B.C.E.

A series of leaders known as “lawgivers” rule in Greece.

643-623 B.C.E.

King Senkamanisken of Kush reigns in Nubia.

642 B.C.E.

Ancus Martius becomes the king of Rome. A bridge is built across the Tiber River during his reign.

640 B.C.E.

King Amon has a short reign in Judah; he is assassinated after two years by his own officials.

640-609 B.C.E.

King Josiah serves as king of Judah. By 627 b.c.e. he reclaims the provinces of Samaria, Gilead, and Galilee from the Assyrians, who are experiencing domestic upheaval because of the death of Ashurbanipal.

626 B.C.E.

Scythians, nomadic warriors from northern Europe (around the regions of modern Ukraine and Russia), invade Syria and Palestine.

625 B.C.E.

The Chaldean Dynasty is established in Mesopotamia by Nabopolassar, who consolidates power in the empire. The dynasty lasts until 539 b.c.e.

623-593 B.C.E.

King Anlamani of Kush reigns for thirty years in Nubia.

612 B.C.E.

The Scythians, Medes, and Babylonians—led by the partnership of Nabopolassar and Cyaxares, the king of Media—capture and destroy the Assyrian city of Ninevah. Urartu is also invaded and conquered. The Assyrians put up a spirited resistance at Harran, but are defeated, and then they look to Egypt for assistance in recapturing the city.

609 B.C.E.

King Jehoahaz of Judah fights off Syrian and Israelite attacks on Jerusalem by turning to Assyria for help.

609-598 B.C.E.

Josiah’s son, Jehoiakim, serves as the king of Judah after Jehoahaz is deposed by the Assyrians.

605 B.C.E.

Nebuchadrezzar, who was the crown prince, becomes king of Babylon after defeating an Egyptian army led by Neko II at Carchemish. He remains in power until 562 b.c.e.

600* B.C.E.

A Phoenician fleet sails around the continent of Africa.

598 B.C.E.

Jehoiachin becomes king of Judah and faces an invasion launched by Nebuchadrezzar. The Babylonians capture Jerusalem and remove thousands of Israelites as captives.

598-587 B.C.E.

Nebuchadrezzar places Zedekiah on the throne of Judah. Zedekiah is taken to Babylon as a captive after a failed revolt.

593-568 B.C.E.

Aspalta is made the ruler of Kush, becoming the first Meroitic king in Nubia.

590 B.C.E.

The Greek tyrant Cleisthenes of Sicyon founds the Pythian Games in honor of the god Apollo. By 582 b.c.e. the competitions are held every four years.

587-586 B.C.E.

Jerusalem is again captured by Nebuchadrezzar and the city is razed. Judah is destroyed as a nation and the Babylonian Exile begins.

578 B.C.E.

Rome joins the Latin League.

575 B.C.E.

The fifteen-meter-high masonry (glazed brick) Ishtar Gate, one of eight portals into the city, is built in Babylon and dedicated by Nebuchadrezzar.

573 B.C.E.

The Port city of Tyre, which resisted a thirteen-year siege, is captured by Nebuchadrezzar.

568-555 B.C.E.

King Aramatelqo of Meroe reigns over Nubia.

563 B.C.E.

Siddhartha Gautama, the founder of Buddhism, is born in Kapilavastu (in present-day Nepal).

560 B.C.E.

Croesus becomes king of Lydia and consolidates Lydian control in Asia Minor.
The Athenian statesman and lawgiver Solon dies.

559-530 B.C.E.

Cyrus (the Great) becomes king of Persia, establishing the Achaemenid (Persian) Empire, which lasts until 330 b.c.e.

556 B.C.E.

Nabonidus becomes the new Babylonian king and allies with Cyrus of Anshan, a small Persian kingdom north of Babylon, against the Medes.

555-542 B.C.E.

King Malonqen of Meroe rules in Nubia.

551 B.C.E.

The Chinese philosopher Confucius (K’ung Fu-tzu) is born.

550* B.C.E.

Persia expands into Anatolia under the direction of Cyrus the Great. Within five years most of the Greek cities in Asia Minor provide tribute to the Persians.
Celts expand their settlements into the British Isles and Ireland.

547 B.C.E.

Lydia is conquered by Cyrus the Great.

542-538 B.C.E.

King Analmaaye of Meroe rules over Nubia.

540 B.C.E.

The Indian religious leader and founder of Jainism, Mahavira (Vardhamana), is born.

539 B.C.E.

The Babylonian Exile ends after Cyrus the Great captures Babylon and releases the captured Jews. Persia rules over Israel and Judah and dominates Mesopotamia.

538 B.C.E.

Cyrus the Great issues an edict to rebuild the Temple in Jerusalem.

538-519 B.C.E.

King Amani-natake-lebte of Meroe rules over Nubia.

534 B.C.E.

The Romans build the Temple of Juno.

533 B.C.E.

The Indus River Valley is conquered by Cyrus the Great, who creates another Persian satrapy.

529 B.C.E.

Cambyses II becomes the king of Persia after the death of his father, Cyrus the Great, who was killed in 530 b.c.e. near the Sea of Aral in a battle against the Asiatic people known as the Massagetae.

522 B.C.E.

Upon ascending to the throne of Persian, Darius I is forced to quell revolts against his leadership. The empire is broken up into twenty satrapies. Darius completes a canal linking the Red Sea and the Nile River. Thrace and Macedonia are forced during his reign, which lasts until 486 b.c.e., to pay tribute to the Persians.

519-510 B.C.E.

King Karkamani of Meroe rules over Nubia. He is followed by King Amaniastabarqo (510-487 b.c.e.).

509 B.C.E.

The Roman Republic is founded, with Lucius Junius Brutus and Lucius Tarquinius Collatinus serving as the first consuls. The Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus (the “best and the greatest”), the supreme god in the Roman pantheon, is built on the Capitoline Hill.

506 B.C.E.

Rome and Carthage sign a noninterference treaty.

500* B.C.E.

Ionian city-states revolt against Persian rule.
Bantu peoples of Africa begin migrating throughout the continent. Also in Africa, the Nok civilization of West Africa (Nigeria) flourishes.

500-323 B.C.E.

The Greek Classical Period flourishes on the Greek mainland.

496 B.C.E.

The Romans become the leading power in Italy after defeating the Latins at the Battle of Lake Regillus.

494 B.C.E.

Roman plebeians wrest political reform and addition rights from the ruling patrician class.

491 B.C.E.

Indian ruler Bimbisara dies. He had been a protector of Siddhartha Gautama.

490 B.C.E.

Darius II reasserts control of Macedonia, but the Persian Empire is defeated by Athens and other mainland Greeks at the Battle of Marathon, blocking further expansion in the region.

487 B.C.E.

Siaspiqa of Meroe becomes the king of Nubia and reigns until 468 b.c.e..

486 B.C.E.

Roman consul Spurius Cassius Vecellinius, who had brokered a peace between the Romans and the Latin League in 493 b.c.e., is accused of trying to make himself the king of Rome after he tries to change agrarian laws to favor the plebian class. He is condemned and executed.
Xerxes I (the Great) becomes king of Persia following the death of his father, Darius I. He maintains Persian control over Egypt and Babylonia. He sends troops against the Greeks, defeating a heroic rearguard stand by the Spartans and other Greeks, under the generalship of the Spartan king Leonidas, at the Battle of Thermopylae (480 b.c.e.). Persian troops burn Athens, but Xerxes’ fleet is destroyed at Salamis, forcing his withdrawal to Asia Minor. He rules until 464 b.c.e., when he is killed by the captain of his personal guard.

484 B.C.E.

The Greek dramatist Aeschylus wins his first prize in the competition for tragedy at Athens.
Herodotus is born. His great work on the Greco-Persian wars garners him the title “the Father of History.”

470 B.C.E.

The teachings of Confucius, which were known as the Analects, are collected by his disciples.

468-463 B.C.E.

King Nasakhma of Meroe serves a five-year reign in Nubia.

465-423 B.C.E.

The son of Xerxes the Great, Artaxerxes I, becomes king of Persia after killing his father’s assassin.

463-435 B.C.E.

King Maloiebamani of Meroe takes the throne and rules over Nubia for nearly thirty years.

458 B.C.E.

Lucius Quinctius Cincinnatus, a Roman consul and farmer, is made dictator by his people in order to lead an army against the Aequi, who have besieged a force led by Lucius Minucius Esquilinus Augurinus. Quinctius triumphs, then steps down from the position to return to his farm.

457-445 B.C.E.

Ezra serves as governor of Judah.

451 B.C.E.

The Twelve Tables, the basis of Roman law, are codified.

449 B.C.E.

The Peace of Callias is negotiated between Athens and Persia. A more-permanent treaty of peace is agreed upon four years later.

447 B.C.E.

The Parthenon, a temple to Athena, is built on the Acropolis in Athens. Construction of this prime example of Doric architecture is completed in 432 b.c.e.

445 B.C.E.

Nehemiah begins a twenty-year term as governor of Judah. He rebuilds the walls of Jerusalem.

435 B.C.E.

Talakhamani of Meroe takes the throne in Nubia and rules until 431 b.c.e., when he is replaced by Irike-Amanote, who leads the country until 405 b.c.e.

431-404 B.C.E.

The Great Peloponnesian War between Athens and Sparta is fought on the Greek mainland.

425 B.C.E.

The Romans conclude a peace with the Veii, with whom they have fought for thirteen years.

423 B.C.E.

Xerxes II becomes king of Persia and serves until 405 b.c.e.

423-404 B.C.E.

The Greek general and historian Thucydides writes History of the Peloponnesian War.

410 B.C.E.

The Gauls, Celtic tribes living in the German regions of Europe, begin migrations across the Alps into Italy.

409 B.C.E.

Troops from the North African city-state of Carthage capture Sicily from its Greek colonizers. The Carthaginians are forced out in 406 because of the plague and make peace in 405 b.c.e.

405-404 B.C.E

Baskakeren of Meroe has a short one-year reign in Nubia, to be followed by the three-decade reign (404-369 b.c.e.) of Harsiyotef.

404 B.C.E.

Artaxerxes II, the son of Darius II, succeeds his father as the king of Persia. The Persians are driven out of Egypt in 404 b.c.e. Artaxerxes ends a rebellion, led by his brother Cyrus, in Anatolia.

390 B.C.E.

After its legions are defeated at the Battle of Allia, Rome is besieged by Gallic invaders, who take the city but are unable to take the capitol.

381 B.C.E.

Cyprus, under King Evagoras, submits to the Persians.

371 B.C.E.

Chinese philosopher Mencius (Meng-tzu), the son of a student of Confucius, is born.
The Spartan king Cleombrotus I is killed by the Thebians at the Battle of Leuctra.

367 B.C.E.

The Romans begin eighteen years of warfare against tribes from Gaul. In all, four separate wars are fought.

359 B.C.E.

Philip II becomes the king of Macedon and rules until 336 b.c.e. He oversees an expansion of Macedonian power over the Greek mainland, conquering Peloponnesus by 338 B.C.E.

358 B.C.E.

Artaxerxes III Ochus becomes the king of Persia. He faces and quells severe revolts throughout the kingdom during his twenty-year reign.

356 B.C.E.

The first parts of defensive fortifications, which will become the Great Wall, are constructed by the Chinese in an attempt to block invasions by the Huns.

353-340 B.C.E.

The Noba occupy Kush and replace the kingdom of Meroe. King Akhratan rules in Nubia 328 b.c.e.

343-341 B.C.E.

Rome becomes embroiled in the First Samnite War, gaining for the Romans control of northern Campania, a fertile and mountainous region.

340 B.C.E.

Roman consul Titus Manlius Imperiosus Torquatus defeats the Latins at Campania and then again at Trifanum. The Latin League is disbanded and the former allies are made dependent partners in the expanding Roman empire.

340-335 B.C.E.

King Nastasen of Meroe rules over Nubia.

336 B.C.E.

Philip of Macedon is assassinated, and his son, Alexander (the Great), takes the throne.

335 B.C.E.

Darius III becomes king of Persia.

334 B.C.E.

Alexander the Great defeats the Persians at the Granicus River and conquers Anatolia. His armies then capture the Phoenician cities, with the exception of Tyre, on their way toward Egypt.

332 B.C.E.

Alexander the Great conquers Egypt as the Persians withdraw. The Greeks besiege Tyre for seven months. The city of Alexandria in Egypt is founded the following year.

* Denotes Circa Date

World Eras