Gujaratis

PRONUNCIATION: goo-juh-RAH-teez
LOCATION: India (Gujarat state)
POPULATION: 50,596,992 (2001 Census of India)
LANGUAGE: Gujarati
RELIGION: Hindu; small populations of Muslims, Jains, Parsis
RELATED ARTICLES: Vol. 4: People of India

INTRODUCTION

Gujaratis are the inhabitants of Gujarat, one of the western states of the Republic of India. The names of both the state and its people are derived from the "Gujara," a people identified by some as a branch of the White Huns, who ruled the area during the 8th and 9th centuries. The name "Gujarat" has also been linked to the Gujaras, a pastoral caste found throughout northwestern India.

Gujarati history goes back much farther than the Gujaras. Archaeological evidence reveals that the region was settled during prehistoric times. The remains of cities in Gujarat dating from around 2000 BC indicate that the people shared in the cultural achievements of the Harappan civilization. The known history of Gujarat, however, begins around 250 BC. Carved rock edicts in the Girnar Hills in Saurashtra show that Gujarat formed part of Ashoka Maurya's Empire at this time. In succeeding centuries, the region came under the rule of most of the great dynasties (e.g. the Sakas, Guptas, Gujaras) that arose in western India. The end of the thirteenth century, however, saw Gujarat conquered by the Muslims.

For the next 450 years, Gujarat was ruled by Muslims, either independent sultans or the vassals of the Mughal emperors. Gujarat was overrun by the Marathas in the mid-eighteenth century, but its control passed to the British East India Company in 1818. In the following decades, the Gujarat area was administered variously as a part of Bombay Province, as a province in its own right, and as a States Agency (the region contained many princely states paying tribute to the British). Following India's independence in 1947, Gujarat was incorporated into Bombay State. In 1960, the Gujarati-speaking areas of Bombay were split off to form the present-day state of Gujarat.

In the years following 1960, the state government of Gujarat was formed by the Indian National Congress, interspersed with rule by the Janata party in its various incarnations (1975–76, 1977–80, 1990–94, 1996–98), but in 1995 the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP), a Hindu nationalist party, took power (the Rashtriya Janata Party ran the state government from 1996–98). In 2008 the Chief Minister, Narendra Modi was serving his third term as Chief Minister—he and his government belong to the BJP—and assumed his office in 2002. Modi has been accused of presiding over what the Indian press has termed the "Gujarat Holocaust." The story begins with the destruction of the Babri Mosque in 1992 by Hindu nationalists, supported by the opposition (at the national level) BJP. The mosque was believed by Hindus to have been built on the site of Ram's birthplace (Ram Janmabhoomi—Ram was a king in ancient India and is held to be an incarnation of Vishnu, an important Hindu deity) in Ayodhya in the Indian state of Uttar Pradesh. Despite a commitment by India's Supreme Court that the mosque would not be harmed, the mosque was stormed and destroyed by Hindu nationalists, who saw its presence as a sacrilege. They were believers in "Hindutva" (Hinduness), a word first coined in 1923 and used to describe movements devoted to Hindu nationalism. Ever since, the site has been a center of pilgrimage for devout Hindus, and trainloads of Hindus, volunteers for the Vishva Hindu Parishad (VHP), an organization dedicated to serving the interests of Hinduism worldwide, have been making the journey by train from Ahmedabad in Gujarat to Ayodhya for pilgrimage and "kar seva" (technically, kar seva means "construction of or cleaning of religious sites").

On 27 February 2002, a train carrying Gujarati kar sevaks was returning to Ahmedabad from Ayodhya, where they were helping build a temple to Ram on the site of the former masjid (mosque), when it was stopped by a mob near Godhra Junction railway station, east of Ahmedabad in Gujarat State: the train was set alight, one car was completely gutted, and 59 people, all Hindus, died in the conflagration. A bandh (general strike) was called by the VHP for the next day, even though bandhs are generally accompanied by violence and have been made illegal by the central government. The bandh was supported by the Modi administration. The next day turned into an anti-Muslim orgy of mass slaughter, arson, and the complete breakdown of law and order in the state. Over the next three months, Muslim shops and homes were destroyed and in Ahmedabad and Vadodra (Baroda) several Muslims, including a former Congress MP for Ahmedabad, were burnt alive. The communal violence between Hindus and Muslims continued until May 2002 and Modi was accused of at best standing by and doing nothing to stop the carnage and at worst of being complicit in the violence.

In September 2004 the Banerjee Committee, a panel appointed by the central government and headed by former Supreme Court judge UC Banerjee to probe the Godhra train fire concluded that the fire was accidental. Its findings, however, were challenged by the BJP and the Gujarat inspector-general of police. A Citizens Tribunal headed by retired Supreme Court justice Krishna Iyer collected evidence and testimony from more than 2,000 riot victims, witnesses, and others. In its report, the tribunal accuses the state government and Chief Minister Modi of complicity in the violence. International organizations estimate over 2,000 people, mostly Muslims, were killed during this period.

LOCATION AND HOMELAND

The 2001 census reported Gujarat's population as 50.6 million persons. Assuming population growth rates similar to those of the 1991–2001 decade, the current population is estimated to be close to 59 million. This figure does not include the sizable community of overseas Gujaratis, mainly pursuing business activities, in Asia and the Pacific, the Middle East, Africa, and the West.

Gujarat lies on India's west coast, and part of its western boundary is also India's international border with Pakistan. Its coastline runs from just east of the mouth of the Indus River, curves around the great peninsula of Saurashtra that juts out into the Arabian Sea, then swings south to a point roughly 160 km (100 mi) north of Bombay. Geographically, Gujarat falls into three broad divisions, mainland Gujarat, the Saurashtra Peninsula, and Kachch. Mainland Gujarat consists of the broad coastal plains east of the Gulf of Cambay. These merge to the north with the lowlands around Ahmedabad and northern Gujarat. Fringing this area on the north and east are the uplands of the southern Aravallis, the western Vindhya and Satpura Ranges, and the Western Ghats. The Narmada and the Tapti are major rivers that flow across the southern lowlands to enter the Gulf of Cambay. Southern areas receive 160 cm (63 in) of rain a year, which, combined with fertile soil, makes them a productive agricultural region. The amount of rainfall declines rapidly to the north and west, however, and most of Gujarat is semiarid or arid.

Saurashtra (also known as Kathiawar) is an important historical and cultural region of Gujarat. It consists of a peninsula bounded by the Gulf of Cambay, the Arabian Sea, and the Gulf of Kachch. Broad coastal plains surround a series of low plateaus and hills in the interior. One of these, the Gir Range (about 640 m or 2,100 ft), is home to a wildlife sanctuary for the last Asian lion population in the world. Kachch, in the far west, is another historical and cultural region. Much of its area is taken up by the Rann of Kachch, a vast expanse of tidal mud flats and salt marshes that merges almost imperceptibly with the Thar Desert to the north. Rainfall in the Rann averages around 30 cm (about 12 in). Maximum temperatures in the hot season average over 43°C (110°F) in northern Gujarat.

In the early hours of 26 January 2001, Gujarat experienced a devastating earthquake. Resulting from the release of pressure as two of the earth's major tectonic plates (the Indian and the Eurasian plates) collided, and measuring 8.1 on the Richter scale, the quake had its epicenter near Bhuj, in Kachch, and resulted in the death of at least 20,000 people with more than 150,000 people injured and over 1 million homes destroyed. National and international aid in the form of specialized rescue assistance, medical aid, food and clothes poured in, but the distribution of this aid offered an insight into the partisan nature of both state and society in Gujarat and provided a portent of events to come in early 2002 (the Godhra communal violence). There was discrimination against Muslims in the distribution of aid by both the state government and the Sangh Parivar, the loose association of Hindu organizations in the state, through which much of the aid was administered.

LANGUAGE

Gujarati, the language of Gujarat, is an Indo-Aryan language derived partly from Sanskrit and partly from Prakit (an ancient language spoken by the common people of India rather than by Brahmans and scholars). There are several dialects of Gujarati. These include Kachchi, spoken in Kachch, the Kathiawadi of Saurashtra, and the Surati dialect of the southern region around Surat. Bhili, the tongue of the tribal Bhils in the northern and eastern areas of the state, is very similar to Gujarati. An ancient form, Old Gujarati was once spoken in neighboring areas of Rajasthan, and dialects in these areas still show strong connections with Gujarati. Gujarati is written in a cursive script modified from Devanagari.

FOLKLORE

According to Hindu legend, the hero-god Krishna was forced to abandon his ancestral home of Mathura and moved his capital to Dvaraka (the modern Dwarka) at the western tip of the Saurashtra Peninsula. Following the events related in the epic known as the Mahabharata, Krishna returned to a city beset by ominous signs. The Yadava chiefs, Krishna's relatives, began to quarrel and became engaged in a drunken brawl that had the entire city in an uproar. Soon, nearly all the Yadava chiefs were dead. Krishna's own son was killed, and his brother was mortally wounded. Disheartened by these events, Krishna retired to the forest near the city to ponder the situation. He was mistaken for a deer and killed by a hunter. The city of Dvaraka was then engulfed by the sea.

Writers note that the events of Krishna's later life are quite "un-Indian" in their tragic nature. The drunken brawl, the slaughter of so many people, the slain hero, the city engulfed by the sea—all are themes found in early European literature, but nowhere else in Hindu mythology.

RELIGION

Gujaratis are overwhelmingly Hindu; about 90% of the population follows Hinduism. The Vallabhacharya sect of Krishna worshipers has a particularly strong following among the Gujarati bania (trading) castes. Dwarka, Krishna's famed capital in Saurashtra, is an important place of pilgrimage for this sect, and is regarded as one of India's seven sacred cities. Shiva also has his following among Gujaratis. The Somnath Temple, on Saurashtra's southern coast, is an important Shaivite shrine. Although their religious practices may differ in details, all Gujarati Hindus accept the fundamental beliefs and philosophy of the Hindu religion.

Muslims make up some 8.73% of Gujarat's population. Sunnis predominate, although the Khoja and Bohra form a significant Shiite minority. Jains, although comparatively few in number, have played a major role in the shaping of Gujarati culture. They are mainly of the Svetambara ("white-clad") sect of the religion. Girnar and Satrunjaya Hill, near Palitana, are major centers of Jain pilgrimage. There are small Parsi communities in Surat and Navsari.

MAJOR HOLIDAYS

The various communities of Gujarat celebrate their own religious festivals. Thus Muslims observe Muharram and the "Ids," Jains celebrate Mahavira's birthday, and Parsis keep their Gahambars (six seasonal festivals). Hindus observe the major festivals of the Hindu calendar, but Navratri is a special holiday of the Gujaratis. Navratri, literally "nine nights," is celebrated on the nine nights leading up to Dasahara day. It is a time of gaiety, when men and women gather in village squares and temple compounds to sing and dance. The festival ends on Dasahara day, when artisans worship their tools, farmers their ploughs, and students their books.

Janamashtami (Krishna's birthday) and other Krishna festivals are important for Vaishnavas. Of particular significance in Gujarat is the national holiday that marks M. K. Gandhi's birthday. Mahatma Gandhi, one of the great men of the twentieth century, and universally regarded as the father of the modern Indian nation, was born in Porbandar in Saurashtra on 2 October 1869.

RITES OF PASSAGE

Gujaratis follow the life-cycle rituals prescribed by their communities. Thus, although the details of the ceremonies may differ according to caste, Hindus observe the rituals (samskaras) set out in the Vedas and other Hindu texts. These include ritual purification after childbirth, the name-giving ceremony, the first-feeding ceremony, and the head-shaving ceremony.

One of the most important rites for the higher castes is the upanayana ceremony, the donning of the sacred thread. Virtually all groups have some sort of period of seclusion followed by purification rites for girls at their first menstruation. Jain rituals in general follow Hindu patterns. Muslim practices include whispering the Call to Prayer (azan) in a newborn baby's ear, head-shaving and naming ceremonies, and the all-important circumcision (sunnat) for males.

Most Gujarati Hindus cremate their dead, although some lower-caste groups bury them. Again, death rites follow procedures set out in the Hindu sacred texts, with Brahman priests officiating at the funeral ceremony. Ashes and bone are collected from the funeral pyre to be scattered, if at all possible, in the sacred Ganges River. Hindus carry out rituals to remove pollution after the funeral, observe a period of mourning, and hold the important death feast (sraddha). Jain funeral customs tend to follow the Hindu pattern, while Muslims bury their dead.

INTERPERSONAL RELATIONS

Gujarati Hindus greet each other with the namaskara, which consists of the gesture of joining hands (anjali) accompanied by the words "Namas" or "Namaste" (an exclamation of homage for the deity). Muslims use the "Salaam" when they meet. A handshake or a casual wave of the hand is a common greeting in urban areas.

LIVING CONDITIONS

A typical Gujarati village consists of a cluster of one- or two-story houses arranged along a central street. A temple, a village square, a few shops, and the well used by higher castes are found in the village center. Around this central area, where the agricultural and trading castes live, are the houses of the artisan castes. In the past, villages were surrounded by mud walls for protection against robbers. The untouchable castes, the Dheds (road sweepers) and Bhangis (cleaners), live outside the boundaries of the village.

The houses of the cultivators are generally roomy, and built of mud or brick, according to the wealth of the owner. Furniture consists of a couple of strong wooden boxes to hold valuables, wooden bed and coverings, and copper and earthenware cooking utensils. There is usually no stable for livestock, so cattle and goats are kept in the house. Living conditions in a village setting are quite different from those of the affluent business castes in cities such as Ahmedabad, Vadodara (Baroda), and Surat.

FAMILY LIFE

In general, Gujaratis conform to northern Indian patterns of kinship, marriage practices, and family structure. The norm is to marry within one's caste, but outside one's clan. Caste divisions and subdivisions among the Banias can be quite complex. Descent is determined through the father's line, and newlyweds live with the father's family. Marriages are arranged, and marriage rituals follow the customs and traditions of each individual caste or religious community. The joint family is typical among Gujaratis, with a household consisting of two or three generations of men and their dependents. A woman's main responsibility is the bearing and raising of children, preferably sons. Among the higher castes, women are mostly housewives. Lower caste women are expected to work in the fields or otherwise contribute to the family income.

CLOTHING

The traditional dress of a well-to-do Hindu man in Gujarat consists of a loincloth (dhoti), over which he wears a shirt (badan) and a coat (angharko) closed with strings instead of buttons. A length of cloth (picchodi or dupatto) is worn as a scarf over the shoulders or sometimes tied around the waist. The turban (paghdi), often fringed with gold brocade at each end, is tied in a manner that identifies the wearer's caste. Country-made shoes complete the outfit. A woman of high status typically wears the sadi or sallo (types of saris) with the choli (blouse). Gujarati women share their fellow Indians' love of jewelry.

As in the rest of India, dress styles vary according to caste and region. A Bania merchant from Ahmedabad dresses differently from a Kunbi farmer in Saurashtra, who in turn dresses differently from a member of the Bhil tribe of eastern Gujarat. There are also distinct regional patterns of dress. A man from Kachch, for example has clothes and a style of tying his turban that set him apart from someone from Junagadh or Bhavnagar. While traditional dress is still seen in rural areas, many urban dwellers (particularly men) have followed the modern trend toward Western-style clothes.

FOOD

Gujarati cuisine is strictly vegetarian, reflecting the strong influence of Jains and the Vaishnavas in the region. Wheat and the two kinds of millet (jowar, bajri) are the main staples. Flour is made into unleavened bread called "roti." This is eaten with a variety of vegetable dishes. The villager takes a light breakfast of roti and milk or curds before setting out for the fields. Lunch is usually roti and buttermilk.

The main meal is eaten in the evening and consists of rice, split peas (dal-bhat), and vegetables. More substantial meals are served on the thali, a metal tray on which roti, rice, and small round bowls containing various dishes are placed. The bowls may hold vegetables such as eggplant, potatoes, beans, dal (lentils), and dahi (curds). Kadhi, a savory curry of curds and fried cakes made from pulses, is a popular dish. And no Gujarati would eat a meal without generous helpings of ghi(clarified butter). Milk-based desserts are common. Srikhand is a rich dessert made with curds and spiced with saffron, cardamom, nuts, and fruit. Gujarat is also known for its delicious ice cream. There is strong religious-based sentiment against alcohol, and Gujarat has been under prohibition since 1947.

EDUCATION

The Gujarati emphasis on business activities provides a strong motivation for literacy. Among the Bania castes, education in reading, writing, mathematics, and accounting begins early in life. Literacy among males approaches 100%. However, when tribal people and the lower castes are figured into the equation, literacy in Gujarat State drops to 69.97% (80.5% for males and 58.6% for females). These figures were reported in the 2001 census.

CULTURAL HERITAGE

Gujaratis have a cultural heritage that can be traced back to the Harappan civilization of three thousand years ago. While the exact nature and extent of Harappan contributions to Gujarati culture are unclear, it is likely that some elements survive in modern folk traditions. The beadwork of Saurashtra, for instance, may well have had Harappan origins. A substantial bead factory was uncovered at the archaeological site at Lothal. Gujaratis have a literature that dates to the twelfth century.

Many other groups have contributed to Gujarati culture. From the Vaishnavas come the legends and mythology of Krishna, to whom are ascribed the popular Ras and Garba folk dances. Jains influenced temple architecture and developed a distinctive style of painting. The Jain commitment to nonviolence (ahimsa) is seen not only in Gujarat's vegetarian cuisine, but in institutions such as animal homes (pinjrapols). Muslim architecture in Gujarat combined Hindu elements with its own styles.

WORK

The trading (bania) castes are very important among the Gujaratis. They make up a significantly higher proportion of the population than elsewhere in India. Gujaratis have traveled to Bombay, to other cities in India, and around the world in search of business opportunities. Gujarat is also a leading industrial state. Ahmedabad, often referred to as the "Manchester of India," is a major center of textile manufacturing. Vadodara and Surat are also important industrial towns. Agriculture is more commercial than in many other parts of India; cotton, sugarcane, oilseeds, and peanuts are major cash crops.

SPORTS

Children in Gujarat are relatively free of responsibilities until about nine or ten years of age and spend their leisure time in a variety of ways. Girls play "house," dress their dolls, and hold mock wedding ceremonies for them. Boys" activities center on playing marbles, spinning tops, and flying kites, and games such as kabaddi (team wrestling). Khokho, a kind of team tag game, is another popular local pastime. Modern sports such as soccer, cricket, field hockey, and basketball are played throughout the Gujarat region.

ENTERTAINMENT AND RECREATION

Especially in the cities, Gujaratis have access to movies, radio, and television. In the more isolated villages, however, traditional forms of entertainment remain a part of community life. These may be linked to religious fairs and festivals or provided by traveling bands of professional entertainers. A folk drama known as Bhavai is performed by Targalas and other castes whose ancestral profession is music and the theatrical arts. The Bhats and Charans are bards and genealogists in Gujarat who have preserved much of the region's folk culture and traditions.

FOLK ARTS, CRAFTS, AND HOBBIES

Gujarat is well known for its traditional handcrafted textiles. Fine silk saris are made in Patan, and attractive block prints are produced in Ahmedabad. Surat is famous for its zari, embroidery using gold or silver thread. Jumnagar is a center of colorful tie-dyed work, while peasant women in Saurashtra and Kachch produce embroidery containing tiny mirrors as well as beadwork items. The making of jewelry and cutting of precious stones is a traditional handicraft of Gujarat. The artisans of Kachch are known in particular for their silver work. Woodcarving is an ancient skill in Gujarat, as can be seen in the fine carvings found in houses and temples throughout the region. Wooden furniture is also produced in a distinctive Gujarati style.

SOCIAL PROBLEMS

Although Gujaratis have made great strides in improving the living conditions of their state's population, problems of poverty, malnutrition, and a lack of basic amenities such as drinking water and health facilities remain in some areas. An outbreak of pneumonic plague in Surat in 1994 caused panic among the population and also drastically reduced tourism in India at that time. The Gujarat government is deeply involved in the massive Sardar Sarovar Dam which has been built on the Narmada River. Although it was planned to help provide irrigation and power to the state, a lack of resources combined with squabbling among the partner states (Gujarat, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, and Rajasthan) has delayed the project. An anti-dam environmental movement has reached a national and even international audience.

As Gandhi's home state, Gujarat has been identified with the nonviolence movement. However, communal violence erupts from time to time across the normally peaceful state. In December 1992, for example, riots that cost both Muslim and Hindu lives swept Ahmedabad, Vadodara, and Surat. They were triggered by the destruction of the Babri Masjid mosque in Ayodhya in Uttar Pradesh by Hindu fundamentalists. On the positive side, Gujaratis have taken full advantage of the recent liberalization of India's economic policies to attract foreign business and investment to the state.

A major, ongoing issue in Gujarat is the displacement of population from the countryside by the construction of the Sardar Sarovar Dam on the Narmada River, in south-eastern Gujarat. The Dam is part of a network of more than 3,000 dams that will make up one of the world's largest water projects with an extensive canal and irrigation system providing water to, according to government estimates, over 1.8 million hectares (over 700,00 acres) of the states of Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra and (mainly) Gujarat. However, over 25,000 families will be displaced by the dam, their villages and lands submerged under water, and the construction is opposed by organizations such as the Narmada Bachao Andolan (NBA). Protests against the dam's construction, such as those organized by NBA, played a major role in convincing the World Bank to pull funding from the project in 1993. The displaced families claim that the compensation and land they are due to receive is inadequate, but in 2000, despite this opposition, the Supreme Court of India gave permission for the construction of the dam to proceed.

GENDER ISSUES

Hindu women, especially those of lower caste experience the constraints of their religion and, like their Muslim counterparts, suffer from poverty and illiteracy. Gujarat, despite being considered an industrialized, developed, wealthy and cultured state, ranks 21st amongst India's states in the sphere of women's literacy. The Census of India 2001 shows female literacy in Dahod, a town in eastern Gujarat on the borders of Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh to be only 31.87%. The difference between literacy rate of male and female is over 20%, a difference which the Government of Gujarat and the people of Gujarat cannot ignore. This issue is being addressed as part of the government's Continuing Education Scheme which involves the setting up of Continuing Education Centers (CECs) and Nodal Continuing Education Centers.

According to the 2001 Census of India, Muslims form the largest minority group in Gujarat, numbering over 50 million people and accounting for nearly 8.73% of the population (89.48% of Gujaratis are Hindu). Women in the Muslim community suffer the restrictions of their religion, from purdah and wearing the burqa to child marriages and "honor killings." In addition to illiteracy and poverty, Muslim women were subjected to "unimaginable inhuman and barbaric" sexual violence during the 2002 Godhra carnage, and some still live in refugee camps, being too afraid to return to their homes.

Fetching and carrying water is women's work in rural India. In the villages of the desert district of Banaskantha, in northern Gujarat, women spend up to six hours a day bringing water from distant sources to their homes. They carry up to 15 liters on their heads on each trip, often walking barefoot. Banaskantha receives less than 7 inches of rainfall each year. The water table has dropped by 6.5 feet a year, as withdrawals exceed natural replenishment. Over 75% of the district's villages no longer have reliable, year-round sources of fresh water. It was not until the end of the 20th century that the government formally recognized the need to involve rural communities in managing water resources, and only in 1999 did it establish guidelines for involving women. However, the women of Gujarat began taking their first steps toward self-governance in water issues long before then.

Guided by an all-women trade union—the Self-Employed Women's Association (SEWA), founded in Ahmedabad in 1972—Gujarati women gradually began to exert their influence over state authorities and secured a greater voice for themselves not only within the community but also inside their own homes. The underlying strategy behind this success has been to link protecting the environment with improving livelihoods. For rural women, economic benefits often depend on the health of the natural resources they rely on. Governments, however, often treat the environment and economic development as mutually exclusive. For example, Gujarat is home to the massive Sardar Sarovar dam, which is now under construction on the Narmada River. Despite the project's goal of alleviating water shortages in rural communities, an independent review commissioned by the World Bank found that plans for the delivery of water to villagers in the drought-prone regions of Gujarat are not on track and they are not likely to happen any time soon, if at all.

In 1986, the State Water Board of Gujarat invited SEWA to increase its participation in village-level water committees. After three consecutive years of drought, the water board believed that proactive local communities might succeed where more centralized management had failed. The water works in many regions were in complete disarray. SEWA held a number of meetings where villagers expressed two urgent needs: The need to conserve water, revive traditional sources like surface wells and ponds, and create alternative water sources like roof rainwater harvesting structures. The second need was to find non-water based work, as seasonal water shortages caused a loss of jobs.

To push for these changes, SEWA encouraged women to join local water committees, called pânî samitis. SEWA had already organized women into about 50 business-development groups—with activities from embroidery to timber and rainwater harvesting—to help them earn more money. Giving women a voice on local water committees was the next logical step because women are primarily responsible for fetching and using water.

At first, however, women were reluctant to come forward because water "infrastructure" was regarded as a male responsibility. Most men were critical of women's participation, and several went so far as to say they would not drink water from a source created by women. But women slowly gained confidence as they began to take the lead in water activities, raised their productivity, and saw their incomes increase. The initial 42 pani samitis were to take over maintenance of the piped water system in the Santhalpur and Radhanpur sub-districts, including collecting user fees. But after the state government reversed its position on this, the village women turned to reviving and maintaining their traditional community sources of water. Pani samitis began constructing check dams, deepening existing ponds, and lining ponds with plastic sheeting to prevent salinization of the water from the region's salty soils.

By 1995 the women's association had accumulated a great deal of experience in the water sector throughout Gujarat, and its projects were yielding tangible economic, social, and environmental benefits throughout the state. The state government, recognizing SEWA's successes, invited the group to lead and implement a state-wide watershed development program. SEWA used this unprecedented opportunity to launch a more comprehensive program than the state had envisioned, one that not only promoted ecological regeneration, but fostered economic development as well. The Water, Women, and Work Millennium Campaign, as it has been called, integrates erosion controls, water conservation measures, tree-planting and forestry initiatives, dryland agriculture, and education, training, and capacity building for communities.

Between 1995 and 2001, the water campaign spread to a total of 502 villages in 9 districts. Women comprised 80% or more of the membership of most of the new water users committees, and committee activities revolved around issues of particular interest to women—fodder growing, nursery plantations, improved agriculture, rain-water harvesting and capacity-building.

Results of the water campaign in Banaskantha District have been impressive. Aquifers in 18 villages have been recharged. A total of 150 wells, including surface wells, tube wells, and farm wells, have been recharged in eight villages. In Porana village alone, a total of 25 wells have been recharged. Salinity has decreased in the treated land thanks to various innovative and low-cost mechanisms for sweetening and recharging the groundwater. Groundwater is lifted with a water pump for irrigation and farmers are able to grow three crops annually instead of one. The investment was just Rs 5,000 (US$106) for each pump system. SEWA's success has prompted villagers and civilian society groups to question India's trend toward privatizing water distribution services. There is some sign that government agencies are beginning to trust the "people's sector" to handle water supply activities, despite skepticism that poor, illiterate women could prove competent.

Apart from its work in the area of water, SEWA has expanded into other areas. Since the 1990s, SEWA has been involved with banking and providing credit to rural women, the SEWA Mahila Housing Trust helped distribute food and assisted people in rebuilding their homes after the devastating 2001 earthquake, SEWA is involved in providing health facilities, in running craft associations and dairy co-operatives, and is a partner, with the state government and UNICEF, in the Development of Women and Children in Rural Areas (DWCRA) program.

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—by D. O. Lodrick.