The Analects of Confucius

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The Analects of Confucius

Books 1 and 2 of the The Analects of Confucius, available online from Exploring Ancient World Cultures Anthology at http://eawc.evansville.edu/anthology/analects.htm

Attributed to Confucius or his followers

Completed around 475 bce

Translator unknown

The Lun Yu, also known as the Analects, is one of the most influential books that survives from the ancient Chinese world. An analect is any collection of assorted writings. It has been said that all later Chinese philosophy (thought or study on the arts and sciences) is in some way rooted in the Analects. This slim, twenty-chapter book is thought to have been written by Confucius (551–479 bce), a philosopher, educator, politician, and public servant. In the centuries following his death, Confucius came to be regarded as an almost mythic figure, a "sage-king" whose name remains readily identifiable with practical wisdom, or wisdom that can be applied to life.

"The Master said, 'A youth, when at home, should be filial, and, abroad, respectful to his elders. He should be earnest and truthful. He should overflow in love to all, and cultivate the friendship of the good. When he has time and opportunity, after the performance of these things, he should employ them in polite studies'."

The Analects record Confucius's teachings as dialogues, or conversations, with students. In Books 1 and 2, the "Master" is Confucius, and other names refer to students who ask him questions. In these dialogues, he presented his thoughts not as new but as wisdom that had been handed down over the course of hundreds of years. The core of his belief was that while people live their lives subject to the rules and commandments both of heaven and of the cycle of natural forces, they are also responsible for their own behavior, particularly their treatment of others. This concept, which he called ren, meaning "loving others" or "compassion," remains central to Confucian belief. Confucius believed that the best way to love others was to maintain humility and to avoid being clever or trying to gain favor with others. He also supported what in the West is called the Golden Rule, an ethical principle that can be found in some form in the scriptures of at least eight world religions. As Confucius put it, "perfect virtue" meant "not to do to others as you would not wish done to yourself" (Book 12). An important part of compassion, or sympathy and understanding of others, is devotion to one's brothers and sisters and parents.

For generations Chinese diplomats and other government officials turned to Confucius for guidance on behavior, as reflected in these passages from Book 10:

Confucius, in his village, looked simple and sincere, and as if he were not able to speak.
When he was in the prince's ancestral temple, or in the court, he spoke minutely [thoroughly] on every point, but cautiously.
When he was waiting at court, in speaking with the great officers of the lower grade, he spoke freely, but in a straightforward manner; in speaking with those of the higher grade, he did so blandly "mildly," but precisely.
When the ruler was present, his manner displayed respectful uneasiness; it was grave, but self-possessed.

In other words, Confucius urged his followers to be humble and moderate in their behavior. This is the kind of simple, almost homespun wisdom that runs throughout the Analects. Repeatedly, Confucius emphasizes such virtues as being upright and courteous, kind and proper, faithful and sincere.

The historical Confucius

Little is known about Confucius's life. Historians regard much that is known about him as legend rather than fact. The chief source of information about his life comes from a second-century bce biography by a court historian, Sima Qian (145–c. 85 bce), the author of Records of the Grand Historian. Sima Qian's book claims that Confucius was a descendant of royal ancestors. He was born in the town of Lu, near the present-day city of Qufu in China's southeastern Shandong province, in answer to prayers his parents had offered at the nearby sacred hill of Ni.

His original family name was Kong (K'ung), and the name Confucius is a Latinized (written using the Latin alphabet) version of "Kong Fuzi" (K'ung Fu-tzu), a name that means "the Master Kong." "Confucius" was the name used by early Catholic missionaries, priests who tried to convert the Chinese people to Christianity, in China. Nothing is known about Confucius's education, but part of the legend is that he studied the religion of Daoism (Taoism) and music. In his early years he took jobs that he considered undignified, such as caring for livestock. By the time he reached middle age he had gathered around himself a number of disciples, or followers, to whom he taught his philosophy. This philosophy grew into the religion of Confucianism. The major beliefs of Confucianism are contained in the Analects.

When he was about fifty years old, Confucius entered public service. He was appointed Minister of Public Works and Minister of Crime by the duke of Lu. He was forced into exile when he offended members of the court, and he spent the following years traveling about China, facing danger and hardship. He returned to Lu in 484 bce and spent his remaining years collecting classic works of literature and putting together the court chronicle, or record, of Lu. During these years, he earned a reputation for good manners and courtesy. It was for this reason that people began to follow the teachings of the Analects as a guide for everyday living.

Confucianism as a guide for politics

One theme that runs through the Analects, and specifically the excerpts from Books 1 and 2, has to do with government and the characteristics best suited to leaders. For example, Confucius refers to agreements within and between governments. He points out that agreements should be based on what is right. Leaders should show respect to others and follow through with what they say they are going to do. Diplomats and leaders would consult Confucius's words and model their actions after his advice. Even into the twenty-first century, leaders in East Asian countries such as China, Japan, and South Korea quote Confucius to support their policies. They believe that the Confucian values of loyalty, thrift, and hard work contribute to the economic success of their countries.

Confucius believed that the political institutions of his time had collapsed. China was in a state of turmoil because of the claims to power of competing warlords. Rulers often did not live up to their responsibilities, and their assistants frequently were given their jobs not because of merit but because they had flattered their superiors or otherwise won favor. Confucius's view was that good government was the result of self-discipline by leaders. He also urged that leaders govern by keeping in mind the principle of de, or virtue. In Book 2, he wrote: "He who exercises government by means of his virtue may be compared to the north polar star, which keeps its place and all the stars turn towards it." Similarly, he wrote in Book 2 that rulers should be kind and firm in their decisions, that they should strive to keep goodness in their work and their lives. Many of these principles also applied to everyday people. They, too, in their dealings with others and with their government, have to show similar virtues.

The Literary Style of The Analects

The effect of many of the sayings in the Analects relies on a type of figure of speech called chiasmus (kee-AZ-muhs). This refers to a reversal of parallel, or corresponding, elements in a sentence or saying. A good example is found in Book 2: "Learning without thought is labor lost; thought without learning is perilous [dangerous]." The chiasmus is the reversal of the words "learning without thought" to form "thought without learning." Another good example, also from Book 2, is advice for leaders: "Advance the upright and set aside the crooked [dishonest, corrupt], then the people will submit. Advance the crooked and set aside the upright, then the people will not submit."

A major reason that Confucius used this and other figures of speech was to make the sayings in the Analects more memorable. If the Analects were to serve as a guide to everyday living, people had to remember them so that they could apply them in their dealings with others. Rather than writing in an abstract, philosophical style that people would find hard to understand, Confucius wrote in a way that enabled people to remember his teachings. In this respect, the Analects are similar to the Ten Commandments, which are also written in a language and style that can be easily remembered. Leaders, such as politicians and business executives, often quote from Confucius for the same reason: these figures of speech provide practical wisdom in pithy phrases, or phrases that are brief and full of meaning. Perhaps the best example of this style of phrasing in modern times comes from U.S. president John F. Kennedy's 1960 inaugural speech: "Ask not what your country can do for you. Ask what you can do for your country."

Translating ancient Chinese texts into modern English (or any other language) is difficult. Chinese characters may not have close English equivalents, ancient Chinese has no punctuation marks, and the language is often open to wide interpretation by translators. For example, the sentence about learning from Book 2 has been translated in many different ways, among them, "Study without thought is vain [useless]; thought without study is dangerous"; "Study without thinking, and you are blind; think without studying, and you are in danger"; and "He who learns but does not think is lost. He who thinks but does not learn is in great danger." These difficulties with translation in their own way add to the appeal of the Analects. If the Analects are to serve as a guide for living, they have to apply in many different situations. Because their language is general and can take on different meanings, their wisdom is not forever fixed but is subject to interpretation as the circumstances of everyday life change.

Things to remember while reading the excerpt from The Analects of Confucius:

Confucius was born into a social class of people called shi. The shi were people, like Confucius's parents, who could say that they had royal ancestors. They themselves, though, had little wealth and usually held low-level military and government jobs. Confucius's social class would likely have contributed to his frame of mind in composing the Analects, for its teachings provided Confucius and others of his status with a way to succeed among more powerful people.
A Chinese education such as that which Confucius received as a child focused on the Six Arts: military skills, arithmetic, the appreciation of music, calligraphy (artistic writing), learning to play a musical instrument, and li, or etiquette and rituals. Being a gentleman required a youngster to master the complex principles of li. One of the primary purposes of the Analects, then, was to serve as a text that would provide Confucius's followers with a more detailed understanding of etiquette and proper behavior.
The Analects were written in part as a response to the political turmoil and corrupt governments of the day. In fact, the turmoil was so great that the Chinese refer to the period from about the fifth century through 221 bce as the Warring States Period. This was a time when Chinese warlords were gaining power by taking over neighboring regions. The Analects attempted to provide an antidote, or remedy, to these problems by defining the qualities of kind and just leadership.

Excerpt from The Analects of Confucius

Book 1
The Master said, "Is it not pleasant to learn with a constant perseverance and application?
"Is it not delightful to have friends coming from distant quarters?
"Is he not a man of complete virtue, who feels no discomposure though men may take no note of him?"
The philosopher Yu said, "They are few who, being filial and fraternal, are fond of offending against their superiors. There have been none, who, not liking to offend against their superiors, have been fond of stirring up confusion.
"The superior man bends his attention to what is radical. That being established, all practical courses naturally grow up. Filial piety and fraternal submission,—are they not the root of all benevolent actions?"
The Master said, "Fine words and an insinuating appearance are seldom associated with true virtue."
The philosopher Tsang said, "I daily examine myself on three points:—whether, in transacting business for others, I may have been not faithful;—whether, in intercourse with friends, I may have been not sincere;—whether I may have not mastered and practiced the instructions of my teacher."
The Master said, "To rule a country of a thousand chariots, there must be reverent attention to business, and sincerity; economy in expenditure, and love for men; and the employment of the people at the proper seasons."
The Master said, "A youth, when at home, should be filial, and, abroad, respectful to his elders. He should be earnest and truthful. He should overflow in love to all, and cultivate the friendship of the good. When he has time and opportunity, after the performance of these things, he should employ them in polite studies."
Tsze-hsia said, "If a man withdraws his mind from the love of beauty, and applies it as sincerely to the love of the virtuous; if, in serving his parents, he can exert his utmost strength; if, in serving his prince, he can devote his life; if, in his intercourse with his friends, his words are sincere:—although men say that he has not learned, I will certainly say that he has.
The Master said, "If the scholar be not grave, he will not call forth any veneration, and his learning will not be solid.
"Hold faithfulness and sincerity as first principles.
"Have no friends not equal to yourself.
"When you have faults, do not fear to abandon them."
The philosopher Tsang said, "Let there be a careful attention to perform the funeral rites to parents, and let them be followed when long gone with the ceremonies of sacrifice;—then the virtue of the people will resume its proper excellence."
Tsze-ch'in asked Tsze-kung saying, "When our master comes to any country, he does not fail to learn all about its government. Does he ask his information? or is it given to him?"
Tsze-kung said, "Our master is benign, upright, courteous, temperate, and complaisant and thus he gets his information. The master's mode of asking information,—is it not different from that of other men?"
The Master said, "While a man's father is alive, look at the bent of his will; when his father is dead, look at his conduct. If for three years he does not alter from the way of his father, he may be called filial."
The philosopher Yu said, "In practicing the rules of propriety, a natural ease is to be prized. In the ways prescribed by the ancient kings, this is the excellent quality, and in things small and great we follow them.
"Yet it is not to be observed in all cases. If one, knowing how such ease should be prized, manifests it, without regulating it by the rules of propriety, this likewise is not to be done."
The philosopher Yu said, "When agreements are made according to what is right, what is spoken can be made good. When respect is shown according to what is proper, one keeps far from shame and disgrace. When the parties upon whom a man leans are proper persons to be intimate with, he can make them his guides and masters."
The Master said, "He who aims to be a man of complete virtue in his food does not seek to gratify his appetite, nor in his dwelling place does he seek the appliances of ease; he is earnest in what he is doing, and careful in his speech; he frequents the company of men of principle that he may be rectified: —such a person may be said indeed to love to learn."
Tsze-kung said, "What do you pronounce concerning the poor man who yet does not flatter, and the rich man who is not proud?" The Master replied, "They will do; but they are not equal to him, who, though poor, is yet cheerful, and to him, who, though rich, loves the rules of propriety."
Tsze-kung replied, "It is said in the Book of Poetry, 'As you cut and then file, as you carve and then polish.'—The meaning is the same, I apprehend, as that which you have just expressed."
The Master said, "With one like Ts'ze, I can begin to talk about the odes. I told him one point, and he knew its proper sequence."
The Master said, "I will not be afflicted at men's not knowing me; I will be afflicted that I do not know men."
Book 2
The Master said, "He who exercises government by means of his virtue may be compared to the north polar star, which keeps its place and all the stars turn towards it."
The Master said, "In the Book of Poetry are three hundred pieces, but the design of them all may be embraced in one sentence 'Having no depraved thoughts.'"
The Master said, "If the people be led by laws, and uniformity sought to be given them by punishments, they will try to avoid the punishment, but have no sense of shame.
"If they be led by virtue, and uniformity sought to be given them by the rules of propriety, they will have the sense of shame, and moreover will become good."
The Master said, "At fifteen, I had my mind bent on learning.
"At thirty, I stood firm.
"At forty, I had no doubts.
"At fifty, I knew the decrees of Heaven.
"At sixty, my ear was an obedient organ for the reception of truth.
"At seventy, I could follow what my heart desired, without transgressing what was right."
Mang I asked what filial piety was. The Master said, "It is not being disobedient."
Soon after, as Fan Ch'ih was driving him, the Master told him, saying, "Mang-sun asked me what filial piety was, and I answered him,—'not being disobedient.'"
Fan Ch'ih said, "What did you mean?" The Master replied, "That parents, when alive, be served according to propriety; that, when dead, they should be buried according to propriety; and that they should be sacrificed to according to propriety."
Mang Wu asked what filial piety was. The Master said, "Parents are anxious lest their children should be sick."
Tszeyu asked what filial piety was. The Master said, "The filial piety nowadays means the support of one's parents. But dogs and horses likewise are able to do something in the way of support;—without reverence, what is there to distinguish the one support given from the other?"
Tsze-hsia asked what filial piety was. The Master said, "The difficulty is with the countenance. If, when their elders have any troublesome affairs, the young take the toil of them, and if, when the young have wine and food, they set them before their elders, is THIS to be considered filial piety?"
The Master said, "I have talked with Hui for a whole day, and he has not made any objection to anything I said;—as if he were stupid. He has retired, and I have examined his conduct when away from me, and found him able to illustrate my teachings. Hui!—He is not stupid."
The Master said, "See what a man does.
"Mark his motives.
"Examine in what things he rests.
"How can a man conceal his character? How can a man conceal his character?"
The Master said, "If a man keeps cherishing his old knowledge, so as continually to be acquiring new, he may be a teacher of others."
The Master said, "The accomplished scholar is not a utensil."
Tsze-kung asked what constituted the superior man. The Master said, "He acts before he speaks, and afterwards speaks according to his actions."
The Master said, "The superior man is catholic and not partisan. The mean man is partisan and not catholic."
The Master said, "Learning without thought is labor lost; thought without learning is perilous. "
The Master said, "The study of strange doctrines is injurious indeed!"
The Master said, "Yu, shall I teach you what knowledge is? When you know a thing, to hold that you know it; and when you do not know a thing, to allow that you do not know it;—this is knowledge."
Tsze-chang was learning with a view to official emolument.
The Master said, "Hear much and put aside the points of which you stand in doubt, while you speak cautiously at the same time of the others:—then you will afford few occasions for blame. See much and put aside the things which seem perilous, while you are cautious at the same time in carrying the others into practice: then you will have few occasions for repentance. When one gives few occasions for blame in his words, and few occasions for repentance in his conduct, he is in the way to get emolument."
The Duke Ai asked, saying, "What should be done in order to secure the submission of the people?" Confucius replied, "Advance the upright and set aside the crooked, then the people will submit. Advance the crooked and set aside the upright, then the people will not submit."
Chi K'ang asked how to cause the people to reverence their ruler, to be faithful to him, and to go on to nerve themselves to virtue. The Master said, "Let him preside over them with gravity;—then they will reverence him. Let him be final and kind to all;—then they will be faithful to him. Let him advance the good and teach the incompetent; —then they will eagerly seek to be virtuous."
Some one addressed Confucius, saying, "Sir, why are you not engaged in the government?"
The Master said, "What does the Shu-ching say of filial piety?—'You are final, you discharge your brotherly duties. These qualities are displayed in government.' This then also constitutes the exercise of government. Why must there be THAT—making one be in the government?"
The Master said, "I do not know how a man without truthfulness is to get on. How can a large carriage be made to go without the crossbar for yoking the oxen to, or a small carriage without the arrangement for yoking the horses?"…
The Master said, "For a man to sacrifice to a spirit which does not belong to him is flattery.
"To see what is right and not to do it is want of courage."

What happened next …

Confucianism came about partly as a response to self-seeking, corrupt rulers, so in the early centuries it was not very popular among the ruling classes. In 213 bce the Zhou (Chou) Dynasty issued a decree ordering all Confucian books to be destroyed, under pain of death. Many Confucian scholars refused to obey the ruling, and they were buried alive. In 191 bce, however, the Han Dynasty lifted the ban on Confucianism, and many of the ancient Confucian texts were again published and read.

Did you know …

Many Asian countries celebrate the date of Confucius's birth on September 28, though it is not certain that he was born on this date. In Taiwan the holiday is called Teachers' Day, because Confucius was one of the first great teachers.
Confucianism and Daoism, which took root at roughly the same time in ancient China, were regarded at the time as sharply differing forms of religion. Daoism was "otherworldly" and urged its followers to withdraw from earthly concerns. In contrast, Confucianism was "this worldly," providing advice about how to behave in the physical world.

The Analects are not the only Confucian texts. In addition, there are two more groups of texts that are important to Confucianism. One group is called the Five Classics, and the other is called the Four Books. Most of these works were written before Confucius was born, but they gained authority because he approved of them. The Five Classics include the Record of Rites, the Classic of Odes, the Classic of Documents, the Book of Changes, and the Spring and Autumn Annals. The Four Books include Doctrine of the Mean and Great Learning. In the eleventh century Books 1 and 2 of the Analects were incorporated into the Four Books.

Consider the following …

Based on your reading of Books 1 and 2 of the Analects, explain why some people would not regard Confucianism as a religion but rather as a life philosophy. Explain on what basis others might disagree with that view.
Explain how some of the events of Confucius's life may have contributed to the development of his philosophical-religious views.
Summarize Confucius's view of "filial piety" and say why this virtue was so important to him.

For More Information

BOOKS

Fingarette, Herbert. Confucius: The Secular as Sacred. Long Grove, IL: Waveland Press, 1998.

Ivanhoe, Philip J. Confucian Moral Self Cultivation, 2nd ed. Cambridge, MA: Hackett, 2000.

Weiming, Tu, and Mary Evelyn Tucker. Confucian Spirituality, vol. 1. New York: Herder and Herder, 2003.

WEB SITES

"The Analects of Confucius." Exploring Ancient World Cultures Anthology, University of Evansville. http://eawc.evansville.edu/anthology/analects.htm (accessed June 5, 2006).

Riegel, Jeffery "Confucius." Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/confucius/ (accessed on June 5, 2006).

Ross, Kelley L. "Confucius." The Proceedings of the Friesian School. http://www.friesian.com/confuci.htm (accessed on June 5, 2006).

Perseverance: Determination.

Discomposure: Uneasiness.

Filial: Relating to a child's feelings for his or her parents.

Fraternal: Showing friendship or brotherly feeling.

Radical: Essential or far-reaching in scope.

Piety: Devotion, loyalty.

Insinuating: Gaining favor through effort, often sly and underhanded.

Transacting: Doing, carrying out.

Intercourse: Communication or interaction.

Economy: Thrift or saving, careful use of finances or resources.