BIBLICAL ARCHEOLOGY

Biblical archaeology is that branch of Biblical studies that uses the results of relevant archaeological research to illuminate the historical and cultural setting of the Bible. The development of this discipline in the late 20th century was affected by the evolution and refinement of archaeological techniques and the expanding of interests on the part of its practitioners.

Recent Developments. Until the late 20th century Biblical archaeology was almost exclusively interested in reconstructing the political history of ancient Israel. The objective of most excavations was to establish the chronology of sites in order to support the historical value of the Bible—particularly the Hebrew Scriptures. Under the influence of New World archaeology, Biblical archaeology broadened its concerns beyond chronology to the sociology, economy, politics, ecosystems and population patterns in order to reconstruct the entire culture of ancient Palestine from the prehistoric era down to the end of the Byzantine period (7th century a.d.).

Accompanying this shift in interest, Biblical archaeologists employed substantially improved techniques of retrieval, recording and analysis of data. The stratigraphic method of excavation developed in the 1950s was supplemented by photogrammetry and computer graphics. Earlier dating techniques were replaced by scientifically more sophisticated procedures such as chronometric dating, atomic absorption spectrometry, and dendrochronology. One result of this scientific sophistication is the interdisciplinary approach of archaeology. In addition to field archaeologists, excavation projects often employ specialists from the natural and social sciences to retrieve and interpret data.

This development in the technical side of archaeological method was accompanied by important changes in the presuppositions with which Biblical archaeologists have approached their work. Archaeology deals with the material remains of antiquity. The Bible is one of antiquity's literary legacies. In the past, data that came from the former were seen as providing an independent and objective support for the latter with the implication that faith was either dependent upon or perhaps enhanced by a demonstration that the events narrated in the Bible actually happened. Today, Biblical archaeologists see the complementary relationship that exists between the literary and nonliterary sources of knowledge of the Biblical era and its people. They excavate not to prove the historicity of Biblical narratives but to elucidate the meaning of these texts by understanding the people who produced, received, and transmitted them. This understanding is provided by the interpretation of the material remains which these people left behind.

Because of the narrower interests of early archaeologists, sites with connections to the Hebrew Scriptures were once the prime focus of attention. Because of the theological concerns that have characterized NT research it was believed that archaeology could have little more than tangential value for understanding the beginnings of the Christian movement; as a result, NT archaeology scarcely qualified for the status of an academic discipline. Similarly the wealth of literary sources from early Judaism seemed to make excavation of Jewish sites an unnecessary luxury. Today some of the most productive archaeological research being done is connected with sites from the Roman and Byzantine periods.

These excavations can help reconstruct the culture and history of the early Jews and Christians. The historian of early Judaism and Christianity can no longer depend solely on written sources since so much new data have been provided by archaeology. The new information must be evaluated and studied as seriously as have been the literary sources. Similarly, the broader, more humanistic goals of contemporary archaeologists have led to greater concern for remains from later periods which sometimes were ignored and discarded. This includes material from the Byzantine period to the modern period. It is especially important that remains from the Islamic period in Palestine be recovered and interpreted since this period has not always received the attention it deserves from earlier Biblical archaeologists.

Dever's Thesis. The most noteworthy area of disagreement among archaeologists in recent years has been focused on the very nature of the discipline. W. G. Dever has called for an end to what he considers the domination of archaeology by Biblical studies. Dever believes this is necessary in order for archaeology to develop its own identity as an academic discipline and thereby be in a position to achieve its own wider goals without having its agenda set by Biblical studies. He further suggests that the term "Biblical archaeology" be abandoned in favor of "Syro-Palestinian archaeology" so as to eliminate any possible misunderstanding of the archaeological enterprise as serving to enhance the Bible's credibility. The latter term carries no theological freight.

Dever defines Syro-Palestinian archaeology as that brand of general archaeology that deals with the geographical, cultural, and chronological entity that gave the distinctive land bridge between Egypt and Mesopotamia a succession of cultures from the middle of the fourth millennium b.c. to the end of the Byzantine period (7th century a.d.). He considers archaeology to be a secular, academic discipline whose assumptions, methods, and goals are determined by archaeology itself rather than by the concerns of religious belief or even Biblical scholarship. While some of Dever's colleagues consider his suggestion regarding the name of their enterprise to be merely a semantic exercise, Dever considers it vital to insure that archaeology achieve an independence necessary to the scholarly maturation of the discipline whose purpose, he feels, should be to understand the phenomenon of cultural process and change.

Although Dever calls for the end to what he sees as Biblical studies' domination of archaeology, he nonetheless believes that archaeology has much to contribute to Biblical studies. Dever describes five general areas within which archaeology can make significant contributions: by recovering the remains of many ancient Near Eastern peoples archaeology provides numerous opportunities for cross-cultural comparison; archaeology can provide a cultural context for events narrated in the Bible in a way that these narratives cannot do themselves; archaeology's recovery of the material remains of ancient cultures provides a supplement to the literary remains already available; archaeology sometimes provides a perspective different from the literary texts making possible a more balanced view of events narrated in the Bible; and it sometimes provides data which can aid the interpretation of an obscure text.

Important Projects. Biblical archaeology came into its own in the 1950s. From that time on many major surveys and excavations were initiated. What follows does not attempt to list and describe all these, but singles out some of the more noteworthy ventures.

A very significant project was one initiated by G. E. Wright at shechem. The project began in 1956 and continued until 1973. Besides the systematic excavation of this important Biblical site, the principal contribution of the Shechem excavation was the successful combination of two archaeological techniques: the Wheeler-Kenyon method of stratigraphic excavation and the ceramic analysis developed by W. F. albright. K. Kenyon of the British School of Archaeology in Jerusalem first adapted R. E. M. Wheeler's method of stratigraphic excavation to the Palestinian scene during her excavations at Jericho (1952–58). This transformed archaeology from mere treasure hunting to a genuine scientific discipline. Wright combined Kenyon's method with the principles of ceramic typology developed by W. F. Albright that made more accurate dating of individual strata possible on the basis of the pottery found in them.

In 1964 Wright, W. G. Dever, and J. D. Seger began work at Gezer. They applied the methodology developed at Shechem to another significant Biblical site. The Gezer project, which continued until 1974, proved to be a training ground for a fair number of archaeologists who went on to direct their own excavations in Israel, Jordan, and elsewhere. Among such projects are those as Tell el Hesi (the Biblical Eglon) under the direction of J. Worrell, L.E. Stager, and G. L. Rose begun in 1970, Tell Heshban (1968–78) in Jordan directed by L. T. Geraty, and Carthage (1973–1979) in Tunisia directed by L. E. Stager. These projects were carried out by American archaeologists who have been responsible for a significant number of important projects in Israel and Jordan under the aegis of the american schools of oriental research (Israel) and the American Center for Oriental Research (Jordan). Another important innovation of the Gezer project was the use of student volunteers who did the manual work connected with excavating the site. In the process, they learned the techniques of retrieval and recording of data. Their field experience was supplemented by lectures and seminars in the field school operated by the Gezer dig. The students contributed their services, which helped the project financially. In exchange, they received academic credit from sponsoring institutions. Today, most excavations depend upon the services of student volunteers.

The Israeli School. The Israeli approach to archaeology has not placed as much emphasis on stratigraphic excavation and ceramic typology as have the methods employed by the Americans and British. The Israelis have been more interested in the larger structures that excavation reveals. They believe that these provide a clearer picture of a site than that provided by analysis of the layers of occupation, though the differences between the American and Israeli approaches are not as pronounced as they once were.

The Israeli school of archaeology came into its own during the 1960s with the outstanding work of Y. Yadin at Hazor (1955–58, 68–69) and Megiddo (1960–71). The project at Hazor became the training ground for a number of Israeli archaeologists who learned how to conduct an excavation with both scientific precision and scholarly teamwork under the guidance of Yadin. In addition to these two important Biblical sites, Yadin excavated the herodian and zealot fortress of Masada (1963–64). Other important projects of the period include those of M. Dothan at Ashdod (1962–72), Y. Aharoni and R. Amiran at Arad (1962–78), A. Biran at Dan (1975–), and Y. Aharoni at Beersheba (1969–75). The excavation at Dan is notable for the intact Bronze Age city gate that was found in the course of its excavations. The mud brick gate was found intact with the monumental entranceway that led up to it. Work at this important site continues and results so far are quite promising.

Following the annexation of the Old City of jerusa lem by the State of Israel in 1967, the Israelis began intensive excavations there. N. Avigad supervised excavations in the Jewish Quarter from 1969 to 1979. B. Mazar and M. Ben-Dov undertook a project near the southern and western walls of the Temple Mount (1968–83) and in 1978 Y. Shiloh began work on the City of David located on the Ophel hill just south of the Temple Mount. Shiloh's excavation attempted to resolve some of the questions around David's city, which was actually outside the walls of what is today called the "Old City." Shiloh exposed the Israelite city and its complex water system.

Excavations in the Jewish Quarter of the Old City brought to light remains from the Israelite (8th century b.c.) to the Byzantine (7th century a.d.) periods. Excavators uncovered a portion of the 8th century b.c. city wall, which probably was built by Hezekiah when the population of Jerusalem spread beyond earlier city walls. Near the Temple Mount, remains from homes destroyed in the course of the First Revolt against Rome were found. One of these homes was preserved quite well and gives testimony to the intensity of the struggle that resulted in the destruction of Jerusalem in a.d. 70. These same excavations brought to light portions of the New Church dedicated to Mary under the title of Theotokos built by Justinian in a.d. 543 and destroyed by an earthquake in the 8th century. This church was depicted on the Medeba mosaic map and described in diaries of early pilgrims. Excavations revealed part of its western wall and southern apse. Another important feature of Jerusalem in this period depicted on the Medeba map and revealed by recent excavation is the Cardo Maximus, the main northsouth artery of Byzantine Jerusalem.

Archaeologists would like to have the opportunity to begin other projects in the Old City, such as the excavation of the Temple Mount itself, but digging in Jerusalem is problematic because of the political and religious sensitivities of both Jews and Arabs who either reside there or consider excavation of religious sites inappropriate.

Roman Catholic School. Two Roman Catholic institutions have made significant contributions to Biblical archaeology over the years. The first is L' École biblique et Archéologique Française which was established in 1890 by M.-J. lagrange, OP (8:322a) in Jerusalem. It is perhaps most famous for the excavation of qumran (1949–67) directed by R. de Vaux, OP. In recent years, the principal project sponsored by this oldest of archaeological institutes in Palestine has been Tell Keisan. Work on this site was initiated by de Vaux in 1971 and was carried on by P. Prignaud (1972–74) and J.-B. Humbert, OP (1975–80). Other projects of the École include new excavations of Rihab and Khirbet es-Samra in Jordan. Archaeological excavation has also been an important activity of the Studium Biblicum Franciscanum located in the Old City of Jerusalem. Most of the projects undertaken by the Franciscans, who have custody of the Holy Places that are related to the Christian presence in Palestine. Recent excavations include the synagogue and church of Capernaum excavated by V. Corbo, OFM, and S. Loffreda, OFM, from 1970 to 1975, the church and related structures at Nazareth supervised by B. Bagatti, OFM (1970) and the Byzantine period church atop Mt. Nebo (Khirbet el-Mukhayyet) in Jordan, which is a continuing project undertaken by M. Piccirillo, OFM (1973–). The excavation of the synagogue at Capernaum proved to be the most controversial since its results have required a reassessment of historical, architectural and archaeological presuppositions that have guided scholars for more than 50 years. On the basis of their excavations, Corbo and Loffreda date the synagogue at Capernaum to the 4th and 5th centuries a.d. Many of their colleagues, principally the Israelis, do not accept these conclusions and continue to date the synagogue to the 2nd and 3rd centuries a.d. Bagatti's work at Nazareth and elsewhere in Palestine has led him to describe a phenomenon, which he calls Jewish Christianity, that he asserts existed in Palestine during the first centuries of the Christian era. For example, he maintains that graffiti and other remains found at Nazareth confirm the use of a synagogue for Christian worship.

Meiron Project. Significant progress has been made in the excavation of early Jewish sites in part because of the efforts of the Meiron Excavation Project. In the course of ten years (1971–81), E. Meyers, J. F. Strange and C. Meyers excavated synagogues at Khirbet Shema, Meiron, Gush Halav, and Nabratein. Their excavations not only shed new light on Judaism in Galilee during the Roman and Byzantine periods but also help set the standard for careful excavation and insightful interpretation. The published results of the Meiron Excavation project have demonstrated how a broadened archaeological approach can help shed new light on historical issues and the interpretation of ancient texts. One of the most important artifacts discovered in the process of excavation at these sites was the pediment of an ark (the shrine within which the Torah scrolls were kept) found in the ancient synagogue at Nabratein in 1980. It was the first and only such object ever found in Palestine.

Another important site from Roman and Byzantine Palestine is Caesarea Maritima. It is an immense site that has been excavated almost continuously since 1970. The ancient city was founded by Herod the Great and it served as the political capital for Roman and Byzantine Palestine. The harbor that Herod built is being excavated using underwater technology that is complicated and expensive. Most of the remains that have been uncovered (a theatre, hippodrome, civic complex, Mithraeum) date to the Byzantine Period, though work is continuing in order to reveal the Caesarea of Herod.

Islam. Excavations of places associated with the Islamic period have been largely confined to two important sites. M. Rosen-Ayalon and A. Eitan (1965–76) excavated at Ramla, the only city in Palestine founded by Muslims. The goal of the project was to trace the beginnings of city to its founding by the Umayyads. The most impressive remains from the Islamic period come from Jerusalem and were identified during the excavation of the area near the southern wall of the Temple Mount. Structures found there were once identified as Byzantine: however, the complete excavation of the area supervised byB. Mazar and M. Ben-Dov have confirmed that the magnificent buildings in the area formed an Umayyad palace complex that was an imposing architectural achievement in its day. Most of the other finds from the Islamic period have not been integrated into a coherent portrait of this era of the region's history. This is one of the most pressing tasks of Palestinian archaeology.

The study of archaeological remains from the Crusader period had been the domain of the Catholic scholars from L'École Biblique and the Studium Biblicum Franciscanum. Recently, Israeli archaeologists have been involved in both surveys and full-scale excavations of Crusader sites. A number of Crusader fortresses have been excavated and reconstructed in recent years: Acco (M. Kesten and G. Goldman, 1964–74), Qal'at Nimrud (A. Grabois, 1968–81), Caesarea (A. Negev, 1960), and Kochav Hayarden [Belvoir] (M. Ben Dov).

The Future. The future of Biblical archaeology depends in part on the climate of Middle Eastern politics. As long as there is no overall settlement of the political issues in the region, archaeologists, both native and foreign, will have to be ready to deal with the inevitable difficulties that are a consequence of these unresolved problems. Secondly, the rising costs of archaeological research will require creative attempts at cooperative ventures so that available resources can be used to their best advantage. Finally, Biblical archaeologists will have to become more scrupulously professional in their preparation, research design, fieldwork, and publications. The richness of the Middle East's cultural heritage is beyond calculation, and much of it still waits to be revealed. There is enough archaeological work in the Middle East to engage several future generations.

Bibliography: m. avi-yonah, ed., Encyclopedia of Archaeological Excavations in the Holy Land 4 v. (Englewood Cliffs 1974). b. bagatti, The Church from the Circumcision (Jerusalem 1971). w. g. dever, "Syro-Palestinian and Biblical Archaeology," d. a. knight and g. m. tucker, eds., The Hebrew Bible and Its Modern Interpreters (Chico 1985) 31–74. l. j. hoppe, "Archaeology and Politics in Palestine." The Link 20 (1987) 1–14. p. j. king, American Archaeology in the Mideast (Philadelphia 1983). j. a. sauer, "SyroPalestinian Archaeology, History, and Biblical Studies," Biblical Archaeologist 45 (1982) 201–209. h. shanks, ed., Recent Archaeology in the Land of Israel (Washington 1983). e. k. vogel, Bibliography of Holy Land Sites Parts I–II (Cambridge 1974, 1982).

[l. j. hoppe/eds.]