EUCHARIST (BIBLICAL DATA)

This article treats of the origin of the term; then of the Eucharist in its various aspects as found in the Synoptic Gospels and with St. Paul in the First Epistle to the Corinthians; and finally, of the Eucharist as it appears in the Johannine writings.

Origin of the Term. The Jewish form of liturgical blessing (Heb. b ^erākâ ) that Jesus used at the Last Supper to institute the Eucharist and that has given its name to this sacred rite and its elements had its OT origins in the praise of God that came spontaneously to the lips of one for whom the Lord had performed some great deed; cf.,e.g., Gn 24.27: "Blessed be the Lord"; in Hebrew, bārûk yhwh; in the Septuagint (LXX), ε[symbol omitted]λογητòς Κύριος. It could be at the same time a sort of public proclamation of the name of God and an acknowledgement and confession of the power and glory of the Lord (Ex 18.9–11). Such forms lent themselves easily to use in public or private worship; the initial blessing or praise of God came to be followed by a more or less extensive "remembrance" (ἀνάμνησις) of God's action in nature and in the history of His people (1 Chr 16.12–14; Neh 9.5–37; Sir 51.1–12). A prayer of petition could often be added (Sir 50.22–24). The LXX often translated these forms of praise and proclamation by ε[symbol omitted]λογε[symbol omitted]ν (to bless, praise) and ἐξομολογε[symbol omitted]ν (to confess, acknowledge, praise); cf. Jesus' use of the latter in Mt 11.25. The verb ε[symbol omitted]χαριστε[symbol omitted]ν, which in classical and Hellenistic usage meant to give thanks, bestow a favor, also came to be used in this same context; the notion of spontaneous praise preceded that of thanksgiving—a nuance that was later lost on the Hellenistic Christian communities; cf. the miracle of the multiplication of loaves in Mk 8.6–7, where, as at the Last Supper (Mk 14.22–23), ε[symbol omitted]λογε[symbol omitted]ν and ε[symbol omitted]χαριστε[symbol omitted]ν appear as synonymous.

This prayer of praise or blessing of God, accompanied by a "breaking of bread" and a "remembrance" of the manifold benefits of the Lord, preceded the main part of the passover Meal and other Jewish festive or fraternal meals. A similar blessing followed, spoken over a cup of wine (the "cup of blessing" or "consecrated cup" of 1 Cor 10.16). In the course of his own b ^erākâ ("while blessing"—aorist participle in Mk 14.22 showing simultaneity), Jesus spoke the words of Eucharistic institution that gave new meaning to this ancient rite: "This is my body; this is my blood." (Is this b ^erākâ of Jesus to be connected with His high-priestly prayer as given in John ch. 17?) An antecedent Passover haggadah, or didactic exposition of the meaning of the meal, may also have prepared the minds of the disciples for this event. While other early names—the breaking of bread, the lord's supper—have enjoyed only limited use, this action of blessing, thanksgiving, has given an enduring designation to the sacred rite.

The Sources: Liturgical Traditions of the Institution. The earliest extant account of the Eucharistic celebration in the early Church is found in 1 Cor 11.17–34 (c. a.d. 55). On the occasion of abuses that had arisen in the celebration of the Lord's Supper in the Church at Corinth (see agape), St. Paul recalled the traditional report that he had received on the true nature of the Eucharist. Paul received this tradition "from [ἀπó] the Lord" (1 Cor 11.23), not by some sort of special revelation (whose immediacy would have been better expressed by παρά), but because the Lord Jesus, as institutor of the Eucharist, was the first link in the tradition and because it was by the power and authority of the Lord that the intermediaries, including Paul himself in his role as an Apostle, could be counted on to transmit faithfully the tradition in the Church. To "receive" (παραλαμβάνειν) and "deliver" (παραδιδóναι) are in fact the equivalents of technical terms for the acceptance and handling on of rabbinical teaching; cf. 1 Cor 15.3–7, where the same terms are clearly used to indicate a historical tradition. This is no denial, however, of the work of Paul himself in fathoming the depths of what he had received.

Plainly, the Pauline account of the institution (11.23–25) is embedded in the framework of a Christian liturgical celebration. The Synoptic accounts (Mk 14.22–24; Mt 26.26–28; Lk 22.19–20), inserted in the course of the Gospel Passion narratives (note the awkward repetition "and while they were eating" of Mk 14.18, 22), likewise owe their present form to liturgical use; their laconic structure shows little interest in the details of a Jewish meal that had become superfluous for most Christians. Matthew manifests a close dependence on Mark; Luke's report is inspired by that of Paul, or at least draws on a liturgical source common to both. The mention of the cup "after the supper" in Paul (1 Cor 11.25) and Luke (Lk 22.20) seems to reflect the separated sequence of a Jewish meal as described above; liturgical practice has joined cup to bread in Mk 14.22–24 and Mt 26.26–28. Divergence of style and vocabulary precludes a Marcan dependence on Paul. Their fundamental harmony amid difference of detail is a precious sign that they have faithfully transmitted the thought of Jesus in His institution of the Eucharist.

The Passover Meal of the New Covenant. It is not certain that the Eucharistic institution actually took place during a Passover meal in the full sense of the term. In any case, the proximity of the feast has influenced the course of the meal, the accounts that the Synoptics give of it, and its theological significance.

The Jewish Passover meal commemorated the liberation from Egyptian slavery—the first great act of redemption by God for His people (Ex 12.1–28), a redemption that formed the preparatory step for the covenant on Mt. Sinai. At the same time, the meal expressed an eager hope and longing for the definitive coming of the kingdom of God. At the Last Supper, in a clear reference to the actions of Moses in Ex 24.8, Jesus established a new covenant "in" (i.e., "by means of," causal) His own blood: "This is my blood of the covenant" (Mk 14.24; Mt 26.28); or the more developed form of Paul (1 Cor 11.25) and Luke (22.20): "This cup is the new covenant in my blood" (by metonymy, cup stands for blood). The clarifying "new" of Paul and Luke recalls the "new covenant" of Jer 31.31. This is no distortion; a covenant in the blood of Jesus ("my blood"), replacing the blood of lambs (Ex 12.7) or bulls (Ex 24.5), is of necessity a new covenant. For this theme in the NT see also Rom 11.27; 2 Cor 3.6; Heb 8.6–13; 9.14–15; 9.18–10.39.

The Real Presence and Communion with a Sacrificial Victim. "Body [flesh] and blood" is a sacrificial notion: cf. Lv 17.11, 14; Dt 12.23; Ez 39.17–20 (especially important for linking "flesh and blood" to a sacrificial meal); Heb 13.11–12. At the Last Supper, the Eucharistic blood in the cup "is being shed" (Lk 22.20) or "will be shed" (in NT Greek, the present often replaced the future participle; in any case, the thought is clear; it is the same blood of Jesus that will soon be shed on the cross). A mere appeal to the words of institution themselves is insufficient to show the real presence of the body and blood of the Lord. The copula "is," whether expressed or implied (in Aramaic, Jesus would have said simply, "This my body …. This my blood"), is no preclusion of asymbolic meaning; cf. Ez 5.5: "this is Jerusalem" (a symbolic action); Mt 13.37–38 (a parable); Jn 15.1, 5 (an allegory).

Among the Semites, however, mere symbols were inadequate for the establishment of a covenant; for this, real victims, not merely signs of them, were required (Gn 15.9–18; Ex 24.5). Added to this is the realistic way in which St. John (see below) and St. Paul speak of the Eucharist. For the latter (1 Cor 10.16–22), it is a "sharing, partaking" of the body and blood of the Lord. As "the table of the Lord, the cup of the Lord," the Eucharist is sacrificial food, to be compared to the sacrificial meals of the pagans, which were thought to effect a real contact or communion with the divinity; see Dn 1.8, 13, 15 (LXX) and Mal 1.7, 12 for the OT background of these terms. The Council of Trent saw in Mal 1.11 an anticipation of the perfect sacrifice of the messianic era. Among the Jews, to eat the victim of a sacrifice was to partake of the fruits of the sacrifice (1 Cor 10.18). For the author of the Epistle to the Hebrews (13.10), the Jews have no right to partake of the Christian altar, which is probably to be identified with the (Eucharistic?) body of Christ. In 1 Cor 10.1–6, the manna and the water from the rock (Exodus ch. 16–17; Numbers ch. 20) are "spiritual," both by their supernatural origin and by their existence as prophetic types of the Eucharist. The Eucharist is the food and drink of the Christian in the new Exodus; it is also "spiritual" for it contains the risen body of Christ, which, vivified by the Spirit, dispenses spiritual life and strength to those who partake of it.

The Eucharist, like Baptism in the Pauline theology (Rom 6.3–5), is a sharing in the death and Resurrection of the Lord. But a warning is sounded (1 Cor 10.5–6): the reception of the Sacraments does not free one from the demands of the moral law; see the whole context of 1 Corinthians ch. 10–11. In 11.27–34, Paul explains that a judgment on Christians has already commenced by the Eucharistic presence of the Lord; it is an anticipation of His physical presence (parousia) at the end of time, the reality of which was a chief article of Christian belief—"until he comes" (11.26).

The Expiatory Sacrifice of the Servant of the Lord. Both the blood shed "for many" of Mk 14.24 and the further clarification—"unto the forgiveness of sins"—of Mt 26.28 are allusions to Jesus as the fulfillment of the Isaian "Servant of the Lord," whose vicarious sufferings "justify" and "take away the sins of many," i.e., in Semitic idiom, "an unlimited number, all" (Is 53.3–6, 11–12; see suffering servant, songs of the). The particularized "for you" of Paul (1 Cor 11.24) and Luke (Lk 22.19–20) may well be a liturgical application to Christians present at the Church's Eucharistic celebration; others, however, see in it an original reference to the "covenant which the Lord has made with you" of Ex 24.8. On Jesus as the Servant, see also Mt 8.17;11.4–6; 12.17–21; 20.28; Mk 10.45; Lk 4.17–21; 22.37 (in the context of the Last Supper); Acts 8.32–33; etc.

The substitutive as well as the atoning role of the blood of Jesus is suggested in Mk 14.24, Lk 22.19–20, and 1 Cor 11.24 by the preposition [symbol omitted]πέρ (for), which can mean not only "in behalf of," "for the sake of," but also "in place of"; the meanings often merge (cf. Lv 17.11: "it is the blood, as the seat of life, that makes atonement"; Rom 3.24–25; 5.9). By analogy with the blood, the body of Christ "is being given for you" (i.e., in sacrifice: Lk 22.19). In Is 42.6–7; 43.16–21; 49.6, the close union of covenant (communion), Exodus (Passover sacrifice), and Servant (expiation) themes is a preparation for the higher synthesis that Jesus would make in the Eucharist of these distinct yet related ideas. The Servant who is "a light to the nations" and who is to bring "salvation" to the "ends of the earth" is in fact a covenant personified. For cognate ideas, see Is 54.10; 55.3; 56.6; 61.8. Forgiveness of sins is joined to the new covenant in Jer 31.31–34.

The Eucharist as a Permanent Institution in the Church. Although the command to "do this in remembrance of me" is probably an elucidation on the part of Paul (1 Cor 11.24–25) and Luke (Lk 22.19) for the benefit of Gentile readers, still the idea of "remembrance" (Heb. zikkārôn ) in the sense of a liturgical reenactment of some past event is deeply rooted in the OT (Ex 12.14, 26–27; 13.3, 8–9; Dt 16.3; Nm 10.10) and must have been present in the thought of Jesus. In this sense, the whole ritual of the Passover meal was a "remembrance" of the liberation from Egyptian slavery. It made the past vividly present in word and action: bitter herbs; passoverlamb; unleavened bread (Dt 16.3; the ἄρτος, literally "bread in general," is therefore no misnomer); and the Passover Haggadah by the head of the family (see Paul's teaching in 1 Cor 5.7–8 on Christ as the Christian Passover). The Last Supper blessing given by Jesus over bread and wine was in turn a proclamation of the new Exodus from the slavery of sin by His own coming death.

After His departure, the disciples were to make liturgically present this same mystery, now not in prophetic action, but in "remembrance" of the past. In the words of Paul: "as often as you shall eat this bread and drink the cup, you proclaim the death of the Lord" (1 Cor 11.26). This "proclamation" has been variously explained: as a recital of a primitive passion narrative in conjunction with the Eucharistic celebration (the verb καταγγέλλειν is used in the NT exclusively for the preaching of the "good news"); or as a dramatized action, with torn flesh and flowing blood symbolized by broken bread and crimson wine. In reality, it is by the repetition of both the actions and the words of institution contained in Christ's "remembrance" that the Eucharist receives its full significance, and that the death is "proclaimed." Christ can no longer die (Heb 9.26–28;10.12–14), but His sacrificial death is made present (1) by the real presence, under the Eucharistic symbols, of the Christ who once upon a time died, who was raised up, and who is now in glory (the Christus passus of St. Thomas Aquinas; see Summa Theologiae 3a, 73.3 ad 3), and (2) by the fruits of His death, which Christians receive in partaking of the Eucharist (Mt 26.26–27; 1 Cor 10.16–21; 11.28–29; Jn 6.51c–58); this doctrine was summarized by St. Thomas (ST 3a, 83.1; 22.3 ad 2;73.4 ad 3).

The Eucharist as an Eschatological Meal. Our understanding of the eschatological aspect of the Eucharist is conditioned by the precise meaning of "kingdom of God" contained in the various accounts. In Mk 14.25 the Eucharistic meal of which Jesus has just partaken appears as a farewell banquet before His death and as a prefigurement of the messianic banquet in the kingdom of God at the end of time. This figure of the future kingdom under the form of a meal is a frequent one in the Bible [Is 25.6;55.1–5; 65.13; Ps 22 (23).5; Prv 9.1–6; Mt 8.11–12;22.1–14; 25.10; Lk 14.15–24; Rv 3.20; 19.9]. The "henceforth" of Mt 26.29 may hint at the length of time that this interval between the Supper and Parousia had assumed by the time the Gospel was written.

Luke placed the words of Mark before the institution (Lk 22.19b–20 are authentic; their absence from some manuscripts may be due to a confusion over the twofold mention of the "cup" in v. 17 and 20) and added to them a notice about a Passover that Jesus will no longer eat until all is "fulfilled" in the kingdom of God (22.15–18). Despite the Greek style and Lucan vocabulary, such a combination accords well with the Jewish custom of an initial blessing over the Passover (i.e., meal, not lamb, which need not have been here present) and a first cup of wine. It may thus be either a reworking of a historic pre-Lucan tradition about the actual course of events at the Last Supper, or more probably the playing of a theological variation on themes of Mark (14.25) and Paul (1 Cor 11.24–25) by Luke himself; cf. the artificial position of Lk 22.24–30, found in a different context in the other Synoptics—Mk 10.42–45; Mt 19.28; 20.25–28. In any case, the farewell in Luke is to the Jewish Passover, the fulfillment of which is the Eucharistic meal; the latter is not only an anticipation of the messianic meal at the end of time, as in Mark, but also more immediately of the post-Resurrection meals of the risen Lord in that intermediate phase of the kingdom of God that for Luke is the Church; note his predilection for the mention of such meals (Lk 24.30, 41–43; Acts 1.4).

The eschatological and joyous aspect of the Eucharist appears uppermost in the meager accounts that have been preserved of the liturgical "breaking of bread" in the primitive Christian community of Jerusalem (Acts 2.42–47). This is only to be expected. The meals of the risen Lord with His disciples had resumed the series of fraternal repasts that, culminating in the Last Supper, had been broken by His death. After His departure, the disciples, filled with the joy of the Resurrection and the hope of a proximate Parousia, continued to gather and to "bless God," to "give thanks" over the bread and wine of the community meal, a meal that would have included a "remembrance" of the messianic marvels that they had witnessed, including the events of the Last Supper, Passion and death, which were inseparably bound to the Resurrection (cf. Acts 10.39–41, where the meals with the risen Lord climax the apostolic witness to Jesus' life, death, and Resurrection); the repetition of the words of Eucharistic institution ("do this in remembrance of me") would render the Lord present once again in their midst.

For St. Paul, the Eucharistic "breaking of bread" (Acts 20.7–11—on a Sunday, the day of the Resurrection; 1 Cor 10.16) is likewise situated between the death of the Lord and His Parousia. The phrase, "you proclaim the death of the Lord until he comes" (1 Cor 11.26) is an echo of the early Christian hope expressed in the words "maranatha" (Come, Lord) in 1 Cor 16.22 and "Come, Lord Jesus!" in Rv 22.20.

Sacred meals with an aura of eschatological anticipation were in use also among the covenanters of the qumran community (1QS^a 2.17–22; perhaps 1QS 6.2–5). They are another poignant testimony to the Jewish longing for that union with God which has in reality been fulfilled in Christ's covenant meal, the Eucharist.

The Eucharist as a Bond of the Church's Unity. The Eucharistic body of Christ has profoundly influenced St. Paul's doctrine on the Church as the body of Christ: "Because the bread is one, we though many, are one body, all of us who partake of the one bread" (1 Cor 10.17). The "one body" has here the same meaning as "the body of the Lord" in the preceding verse, i.e., the real body of the risen Lord. By their contact with the Eucharistic body, Christians come into vital, dynamic union with the person of Christ. That they are identified with the body of Christ is no mere metaphor, borrowed from social or civil life, for the power and life of the Spirit of Christ is present in each of them (1 Cor 6.15; 12.27; Eph5.30). The communion (κοινωνία sharing, partaking: 1 Cor 10.16) of the individual Christian with the Eucharistic body is thus the cause of their union, communion among themselves (Acts 2.42).

The Eucharist in St. John. The words of Eucharistic institution are lacking in the Last Supper account of the Fourth Gospel (John ch. 13–17). Instead, John's Eucharistic doctrine is concentrated in ch. 6, where, following an account of the multiplication of loaves (v.1–13) and the walking on the sea (v.16–21), Jesus delivers a long discourse of which the principal theme is that of the "bread of life" (v.26–72.).

In Part Purely Metaphorical. Despite its literary unity, ch. 6 is not to be regarded as purely and simply a promise of the Eucharist. The themes that Jesus develops from the OT refer, first and foremost, to Himself as the Son who has been sent by the Father into the world (v. 39–40) to give life to it by His person and message (v.33) and who must metaphorically be eaten by faith. The crowd in 6.14 acclaims Jesus as "the Prophet," namely, the eschatological prophet of Dt 18.15, a theme that played an important role in the early Church's preaching (Acts 3.22–23; 7.37). For the manna concept, which is the type of Jesus as the "bread of life," see Ex 16.4, 13–15; Ps 77 (78).24; Neh 9.15. According to some Jewish circles, the miracle of the manna was to be repeated at the coming of the Messiah; see the Syriac Apocalypse of Baruch 29.8–30.1 [R. Charles, The Pseudepigrapha of the OT (Oxford 1963) 498]. Jesus' words in Jn 6.35, "He who comes to me shall not hunger, and he who believes in me shall never thirst," are an echo of the eschatological ideas found in Is 55.1–2, "All you who are thirsty, come to the water! You who have no money, come, receive grain and eat," and Is 65.13, "Lo, my servants shall eat, but you shall go hungry; my servants shall drink, but you shall be thirsty." The words in Jn 6.45–47, "And they all shall be taught of God," play on a familiar theme of Is 54.13; Jer 31.31–34. Jesus compares Himself to the feast that personified Wisdom prepares for herself in Prv 9.1–6; Sir 24.18–21. The disciple of Christ is likened to the pupil at the feet of Wisdom in the OT.

In Part Purely Literal. The entire discourse, however, cannot be understood in a purely metaphorical sense, although such an interpretation is found among some of the Fathers and later theologians, e.g., Clement of Alexandria and Origen. Cajetan adopted a similar view for the sake of a better defense of the Catholic practice of communion under the species of bread alone: de spirituali manducatione et potatione … est ("It is a matter of spiritual eating and drinking"; Commentarium in ST 3a, 80.12). The Council of Trent made no decision in the matter. The words in Jn 6.51c–58 (52c–59 in the Vulgate and 1941 Confraternity edition) are in fact far too realistic and contain too many undertones of the words of Eucharistic institution to be merely a metaphor for faith in the person of Christ or for the Redemption brought by him. Ultra-realistic expressions are present: "I will give" is a promise for the future, but in John it can also mean "to give in sacrifice"; "for [[symbol omitted]πέρ, on behalf of] the life of the world"; "bread" (ἄρτος); "drink my blood"; "flesh" (σάρξ), a more Semitic expression than the σ[symbol omitted]μα (body) of the Synoptics and St. Paul; "he who eats [τρώγειν, literally, gnaw, munch] my flesh."

Hence, many see in John ch. 6 a uniform transition from reception of Jesus by faith to reception of Him in the Eucharist. Occasioned perhaps by the Passover synagogue readings (6.4, 60) that dealt with the manna in the desert, Jesus would have prepared the minds of the Jews for the Sacrament that he was to institute at the Last Supper.

Double-Meaning Interpretation. The discourse may be envisaged in another fashion. It seems improbable that at such an early date in his ministry Jesus would have demanded, above and beyond a confession of his Messiahship, a belief in the sublime and difficult mystery of the Eucharist. To have done so would be to break the bruised reed and quench the smoking wick (Mt 12.20). One of the characteristics of John's Gospel is that it shows parallels between the Sacraments of the Church and historical events in the life of Jesus. The wine miracle at Cana (Jn 2.1–11), already a sign of the replacement of the Law by the gospel, may point further in John's mind to that greater rite of purification by blood which is the Eucharist; note the proximity of the Passover in 2.13. The miracle of the loaves, a historical event, is described in terms reminiscent of the Last Supper (6.11); this tendency is already to be noted in the Synoptic accounts (Mk 6.41; 8.6; and parallels). The Evangelist, then, would also have seen a deeper sacramental meaning behind a discourse that originally concerned the person of Jesus as Messiah (Jn 6.26–51b, 59–72). To further emphasize the intimate union of faith and Sacrament, the Evangelist or a later editor (cf. ch. 21, which is acknowledged to be a posterior addition) would have inserted 6.51c–58, whose original context lay elsewhere in the Johannine tradition—a version of Jesus' words at the Last Supper, or a Christian homily based on them, whose intention would be to combat a spiritual docetism that would rob the Eucharist of any physical reality.

John's Eucharistic doctrine, like that of the Synoptics and St. Paul, is closely linked to the Passion and death of Jesus and to His second coming (6.54). The efficacy of the Sacraments can in fact come only from the death of Jesus, after he has "given up his spirit," or rather,"handed over the [Holy] Spirit" (Jn 19.30). The blood and water flowing from His pierced side is for the Evangelist a type of the Eucharist and Baptism (cf. 1 Jn 5.6, 8 for a similar symbolism). Jesus, the "true vine" (Jn 15.1–17), feeds the disciples on His own blood, the "fruit of the vine" (Mk 14.25). It is a source for the unity of Christians with Christ and with one another, just as with Paul also the Eucharist makes of Christians "one body" (1 Cor 10.17). From the very Incarnation of the Word, in John's thought (Jn 1.14; 1 Jn 4.2), Jesus has been food for those who believe in Him. In the OT itself, the manna had already been a figure for the "word of life," the divine message (Dt 8.3). The Christian "word of life" is in turn the Gospel message; Christ is this "Word of Life" personified (1 Jn 1.1). Those who believe and listen to this "Word" are already nourished by the divine life.

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