VOTIVE OFFERINGS

A rather imprecise term denoting many different objects dedicated to deities, religious dignitaries, or institutions.

General Use. Votive offerings are more or less distinguishable from sacrifices: (1) by the fact that they are not prescribed in a formal, regular way; (2) by the greater degree of permanence of the object that is dedicated, (temple, altar, priestly utensil, etc.); (3) by the manner in which the gift is linked with a vow or wish (Lat. votum ) of the giver, whether in the case of a thanksgiving offering made for a blessing bestowed on the giver, in the case of an offering meant to guarantee a deity's help for some future undertaking or therapy, or in the case of a gift of submission sealing the giver's transition to a new state of life.

Even when clearly related to a vow or wish, votive offerings can be manifold. Well known are the sculptured legs, feet, etc., or abandoned crutches—as in ancient temples of Asclepius or in certain Catholic shrines—of grateful devotees, cured of deformities or disease in their legs or other parts of their bodies. Although much superstition must have been associated with votive offering at all times, the religious sense of these gifts is to be seen at the two poles of the offering transaction, viz, the giver, dedicating himself through his offering, and the deity, to whom or in whose name the gift is made. A telling example of a votive offering with a strong emphasis on the sacrificial vow and self-dedication is provided by Tacitus (Germania 31). The Teutonic tribe of the Chatti used to let their hair and beards grow and did not cut them until an enemy was killed. Another illustration of this aspect is the ceremony of devotio, in which the ancient Roman general vowed destruction to himself, and the army of his enemy with him, in order that his side might be given the victory by the gods. Again, temple precincts of the god Aiyanar in South India are often filled with clay. models of horses, the god's favored animal, which are gifts of grateful devotees seeking the god's assistance. The custom of presenting symbols proper to the deity whose help is invoked, or images of that diety, itself is indicated from Mycenaean times in Greece. The reason is undoubtedly to be found in the basic symbolism of each religious structure; the god who is worshiped can ultimately be given only himself. This symbolism is continued in the prayers of devotion to God in Judaism and Christianity: the offerings of prayer find in God not only their goal but their origin as well.

Bibliography: g. van der leeuw, Religion in Essence and Manifestation, tr. j. e. turner, 2 v. (London 1938; 2 v. New York 1963). m. p. nilsson, Geschichte der grieschschen Religion (Munich 1955–61), passim. s. eitrem, The Oxford Classical Dictionary, ed. mary cary et al. (Oxford 1949) 954–955. w. h. d rouse, Greek Votive Offerings (Cambridge, England 1902); j. hastings, ed., Encyclopedia of Religion & Ethics, 13 v. (Edinburgh 1908–27) 12:641–643. h. whitehead, The Village Gods of South India (New York 1921).

[k. w. bolle]

In the Bible. In the Old Testament, a votive offering was a voluntary offering vowed to God but not required by the Law. The technical term in Hebrew for such an offering is neder (vow). The only legislation prescribed for votive offerings regulated the place where they were to be made (Dt 12.5–6, 11).

The purpose of such a vowed offering was to give force to the prayer offered by the Israelite, and the formula in which the vow was couched contained either a positive or negative condition—negative, if the promise was to be fulfilled before the favor was granted, e.g., abstaining from wine for a certain period of time in order to gain God's blessing (1 Sm 14.24), and positive, if the Israelite promised to do something after Yahweh granted the favor. The positive vow always had as its object a cultic action. The Psalms contain frequent references to votive sacrifices that were publicly celebrated in the Temple at Jerusalem as a result of Yahweh's having granted a favor [Ps 21 (22).26; 49.(50).14; 55 (56). 13]. Nowhere is there any mention of good works or charity as the thing being vowed.

Abuses made their appearance later when vows were made too easily. This resulted in the lessening of their binding force and opened the way to the practice of allowing payment of a price to substitute for the object vowed to God. Thus the uniquely religious significance of the vow was depreciated. [see vow (in the bible)].

In the New Testament there is no direct evidence that the early Christians carried over the Jewish practice of votive offerings.

Bibliography: r. devaux, Ancient Israel, Its Life and Institutions, tr. j. mchugh (New York 1961) 417–418. Encyclopedic Dictionary of the Bible, translated and adapted by l. hartman (New York, 1963) 2552–2554.

[r. j. flynn]