Roger Bacon

c. 1214-1292

English Philosopher, Educational Reformer, and Franciscan Monk

Roger Bacon played a key role in the early stages of the movement which eventually led to the Scientific Revolution. Instead of relying on rational deductions from the statements of ancient authorities for truths about the natural world, he advocated that confirmation by observation or experiment using the methods of mathematics should be required. While not successful in having his ideas accepted during his lifetime, his writings brought attention to this new way of thinking. He is regarded as an important medieval proponent of experimental science.

Bacon was born into a prominent family. His education emphasized the classics, geometry, arithmetic, music, and astronomy. He received his baccalaureate at Oxford University (c. 1233) and his masters at Paris (c. 1241). He subsequently lectured (1240-1247) on newly translated Aristotelian texts, helping introduce Aristotelian thought to Europe. Returning to Oxford in 1247, he remained there as a scholar and teacher until 1257.

At Oxford, Bacon was inspired by Robert Grossteste (c. 1175-1253) and Adam of Marisco (a.k.a. Adam Marsh). Grossteste is regarded as one of the earliest influences in the development of modern scientific thought. He advocated developing comprehensive laws based on personal observations of nature, used mathematics to present and explicate these laws, and wrote on experimental subjects, especially optics. Marsh, a Franciscan theologian, differed from most of the churchmen of the day by advocating the importance of experiential, as well as philosophical, knowledge. Bacon enthusiastically took the ideas of these two men as his own and became an outspoken advocate of scientific ideas and their place in university education. He attacked the Scholastics (the churchmen who controlled the universities and who, in general, opposed these new ideas) as ignorant conservatives.

In 1257, perhaps because of illness and/or financial problems, Bacon became a Franciscan monk. His religious superiors did not appreciate his unorthodox views and his outspoken contempt for authority and attempted to silence him. In 1266, Bacon appealed to Pope Clement IV for financial support for his work, proposing an encyclopedia that would interrelate all knowledge and use science to confirm the Christian faith. The Pope thought that Bacon had already completed the work and asked to see a copy, commanding Bacon not to reveal his interest to anyone. Bacon set to work, and during 1267-1268 wrote, in secret, three volumes: Opus maius, Opus minus, and Opus tertium, in which, among other things, he proposed a complete reform of education in which the sciences, including observation and exact measurement, would play a major part. Unfortunately, Bacon's hopes evaporated when Clement died in 1268.

Bacon subsequently began three other encyclopedias: Communia naturalium, Communia mathematica, and Compendium philosophiae. His blunt criticism of contemporary philosophers and theologians combined with what were considered to be heretical ideas involving alchemy and the mysticism of Joachim of Fiore, led to his imprisonment by the Franciscans in 1277. He spent the next 14 years imprisoned in a Paris convent. Upon his release he returned to Oxford and died soon afterward, a defeated and largely misunderstood man.

Bacon made some scientific contributions. He was the first European to describe a process for making gunpowder. He proposed motorized vehicles for land, air, and water, as well as eyeglasses and the telescope. But many of Bacon's ideas were not original. He performed few experiments himself; he was more an advocate for the scientific method than a practitioner. But his writings could not be ignored, and they, especially their general attitude toward the new scientific method of acquiring knowledge, played an important role in the development of the ideas that eventually led to the Renaissance and the Scientific Revolution.

J. WILLIAM MONCRIEF